*^-^ 



^>^ 
."^^r^:^ 










t'^'* 









'>^.- 



.4fe'-.i5"*r^ 







igos Edition 

UP-TO-DATE 



Ai r-B fd^ke Cdtt echism 

By Robert H, Blacrall 

Air-Brake Instructor and Inspector with Westinghouse Air Brake Co. 



A COMPLKTE STUDY OI^ THE AIR BRAKE AND vSIGNAL 
EQUIPMENT, INCLUDING THE VERY LATEST DEVICES. 
THE OPERATION OE ALE PARTS ARE EXPLAINED IN 
DETAIL, AND A PRACTICAL WAY OF FINDING THE 
PECULIARITIES AND DEFECTS, WITH THEIR 
PROPER REMEDY IS GIVEN. INCLUDING 
THE NECESSARY INFORMATION TO EN- 
ABLE A RAILROAD MAN TO PASS A 
THOROUGHLY SATISFACTORY EX- 
AMINATION ON THE SUBJECT 
OF AIR BRAKES. 



Containing nearly 1,500 Questions with their Answers, intended 

as Examination Questions for Engineers and Firemen, and 

for all other Practical Railroad Men, w-ith Ninety-eight 

Engravings specially made to illustrate the various 

parts of the Air Brake ; also containing twelve 

large folding plates. Plates One, Tv/o and 

Three being printed in colors. 



eighte:i:nth i:dition 

Revised, Enlarged and brought up to the present practice. 



NEW YORK. 

NORMAN W. HENIvEY & CO. 
132 Nassau Street. 

1903 



I 



THE LiBHAf.'Y OF 
CONGRESS 

Two Copies Receiver 

SEP 25 1903 

Copynght Entry 

CLASS «^ XXc No 

COPY B. 






Copyrighted, 1S98 

BY 

NORMAN W. HENI^EY & CO. 



Copyrighted, 1903 

BY 

NORMAN W. HENIvKY & CO. 



Copyrighted, 1903 

BY 

NORMAN W. HKNIvEY & CO. 



THIS BOOK IS RESPECTFUI,I,Y DEDICATED TO 

R. C. BI^ACKAI,!,, 

SUPERINTENDENT OF MACHINERY, D. & H. CO. 

AS A TOKEN OF APPRECIATION 

OF HIS 

EXECUTIVE ABII^ITY AND INTELLIGENT SERVICE 

DURING A LONG PERIOD OF 

PRACTICAL RAILROADING. 



-^ 



Preface to the Eighteenth Edition. 



Owing to the cordial support by railroad people as 
evidenced by the wide sale of this work published in 
1898 and revised in 1900, the author has been encour- 
aged to make a complete revision and enlargement of 
same. 

This has been done in the present edition. In it will 
be found all of the latest devices, and it also includes 
three special color plates, which will prove a valuable 
aid to students of the air brake. 

Special pains has been taken to make the information 
contained as complete as possible ; the more important 
parts of the brake mechanism have been shown in their 
different positions assumed in response to variations 
of air pressure, and obsolete equipment has been 
omitted. 

The author takes this opportunity to thank the rail- 
roading public for their patronage and to express to 
the publishers his appreciation of their interest in the 
publication of the work and of a large share of its 
success. 

Robert H. Blackall. 

September, 1903. 



L 



PREFACE TO TWELFTH EDITION. 

The success of previous editions of this book has led 
the author to add several new chapters to the present 
edition, and at the same time the work has been revised 
and corrected to date. 

I desire to now express thanks for the many favorable 
letters received from students of the Air Brake. 

ROBERT H. BLACKALL. 

September, 1900. 



/ 



PREFACE. 

There is a law compelling railroad companies to have 
a sufficient number of cars to control trains equipped with 
air brakes by January i, 1900. In view of this, there is a 
vast army of railroad employees, especially engine and train 
crews and air-brake machinists, whose work demands a 
practical and thorough understanding of that subject. 

There is no book published which gives a complete study 
of the air-brake equipment, including the latest devices and 
iuA^entions used. It is to meet the demand for such a book 
that the present work is designed. 

The book includes a complete discussion of all parts 
of the air-brake equipment, the troubles and peculiarities 
encountered, and a practical way to find and remedy them. 
It is written in the familiar st34e of the class-room, the 
method of question and answer being adopted, as in that 
way each point to be enforced may be more definitely and 
clearly brought out. 

Train and engine crews will find special and practical as- 
sistance to their work under the subjects Train Hand- 
ling and Train Inspection. 

The aim of the author has been to make the subject 
matter of such a character as will be readily understood by 
beginners, and by progression under each topic, to cover 
also the more intricate work, which will make the book valu- 
able to those advanced in the subject. 

ROBERT H. BLACKALL, 
Air-Brake Inspector, D. & H. C. Co. 

October, 18980 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Preface. 

Beginnings of the Air Brake .... 

Westinghouse Automatic Brake 

Triple Valve ..... 

Plain Triple Valve .... 

Function of the Triple Valve 

Quick-Action Triple Valve 

Peculiarities and Troubles of the Triple Valve 

Freight Equipment .... 

Piston Travel ...... 

American Brake-Slack Adjuster 

Westinghouse Retaining Valves — Operation, Troubles, 

Benefits ...... 

Main Reservoir ...... 

Westinghouse Engineer's Brake Valves 

G 6 Brake Valve ...... 

Slide-Valve Feed Valve . . . . . 

Feed Valve or Trainline Governor (Old Style) 

Engineer's Equalizing Reservoir or " Little Drum " 

Peculiarities and Troubles .... 
Vv'estinghouse D 8 Engineer's Brake Valve . 

Operation and Description .... 

Peculiarities and Troubles . . . . 

Comparison of G 6 and D 8 Engineer's Brake Valve 
Westinghouse Air Pumps . . . . . 

Nine and One-Half-Inch Pump 

Peculiarities and Care ..<... 

Eight-Inch Pump ..... 

Nile and One-Half-Inch Pump, Right and Left Hand 

Eleven-Inch Pump ..... 
Westinghouse Pump Governors — 

Operation, Peculiarities and Care 



PAGE 

17-20 

21 

22-48 

22-34 

27-34 
35-48 
40-48 

49-53 
54-65 
66-73 

74-83 
84-88 
89-131 
91-117 
101-104 
105-109 
110-113 
1 14-117 
1 18-129 
1 18-125 
126-129 
130-131 
132-153 
132-144 
137-144 
145-149 
149-150 

151-153 
154-160 



TABIyK OF CONTENTS. 

The Sweeney Compressor . . . , 

The Water Brake .... 

For Simple Engines . . . ., 

For Compound Engines . 
Westinghonse Signal System 

Operation and Description 

Peculiarities and Troubles 
High-Speed Brake .... 

Schedule U or High-Pressure Control 
Combined Automatic and Straight Air 
Duplex Main Reservoir Regulation 
Appliances and Methods of Testing Triple Valves 
Ivubricants ...... 

Air Brake Recording Gages 

Train Inspection .... 

Train Handling .... 

Brake Tests ..... 

Piping ..... 

Cam Brake ..... 

Braking Power and Leverage . 

Cylinders to be Used on Different Vehicles 

American Brake Leverage 

Air Hose and Specifications 

Rules and Formulae for Air-Brake Inspectors 



PAGE 

i6i 
162-169 

163-165 
165-169 
170-184 
170-178 
179-184 
185-196 
197-200 
201-213 
214-216 
217-227 

228 
229-233 
234-242 
243-261 
261-267 
268-269 

27a 
271-286 

287 
288-290 
291-294 
295-299 



List of Illustrations of Westinghouse 
Air Brake and Signal Equipment. 



PAGt 



Plate I. 



Plate II. 



Plate III. 



Plate IV. 

Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 
Plate V. 

Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 

Fig. 

Fig. 
Fig. II. 
Fig. 12. 

I^ig. 13. 
Fig. 14. 



Colored Chart Showing General Arrangement of 
High-Speed and Signal Equipment on Passen- 
ger Engine, Passenger-Engine Tender and 
Passenger Car. 
Colored Chart Showing General Arrangement of 
Air Brake Equipment on Freight or Switch- 
Engine, Freight or Switch-Engine Tender and 
Freight Car. 
Colored Chart Showing Usual Location of Air 
Brake and Signal Equipment on an Engine 
and Tender. 
Showing Different Positions and Parts of the 
Plain Triple Valve, including : 
Plain Triple Valve — Release Position 
Plain Triple Valve— Service Position 
Plain Triple Valve — Lap Position 
Plain Triple Valve — Emergency Position 
Showing Different Positions and Parts of the 
Quick- Action Triple Valve, including : 
Quick-Action Triple Valve — Release Position. 
Quick-x\ction Triple Valve — Service Position . 
Quick-Action Triple Valve — Lap position 
Quick-Action Triple Valve — Emergency Posi- 
tion 

Quick- Action Triple Valve Slide- Valve Bushing 
Quick-Action Triple Valve Slide- Valve . 
Freight Equipment ...... 

Showing Application of American Brake-Slack 
Adjuster to a Passenger Car .... 

Sectional View of American Brake-Slack Adjuster 
Showing Proper Method of Drilling Brake Cyl- 
inders when used with The American Brake- 
Slack Adjuster 



50 



67 



72 



List oi^ Illustrations. 

PAGE 

Fig. 15. Sectional View of Pressure Retaining Valve . 75 

Fig. 16. Retaining Valve used with 12, 14 and i6-incli 

Brake Cylinders ...... 82 

Fig. 17. ** Pullman " Retaining Valve, used on Vestibule 

Cars 82 

Fig. iS. Standard Retaining Valve used with 6, 8 and 

lo-inch Brake Cylinders 82 

Fig. 19. Driver Brake Retaining Valve .... 82 

Fig. 20. D8 Engineer's Brake Valve — Release Position . 93 

Plate VI. Showing Sectional Views of the G 6 Engineer's 
Brake Valve and Slide Valve Feed Valve, in- 
cluding : 
Fig. 21. G 6 Engineer's Brake Valve — Release Position 
Fig. 22. G 6 Engineer's Brake Valve — Running Position 
Fig. 23. G 6 Engineer's Brake Valve — Plan View . 
Fig. 24. Slide Valve Feed Valve, Section Through Sup- 
ply Valve Piston ..... 

Fig. 25. Slide Valve Feed Valve, Section Through Re- 
gulating Part ...... 

Fig. 26. Rotary Valve of G 6 Engineer's Brake Valve 
(top view) ....... 

Fig. 27. Rotary Valve of G 6 Engineer's Brake Valve 
(bottom view) ...... 

Fig. 28. Feed Valve or Train Line Governor (old style) . 106 

Fig. 29. Feed Valve Gasket ...... 107 

Fig. 30. Engineer's Equalizing Reservoir or "Little 

Drum" . . , no 

Fig. 31. D 8 Engineer's Brake Valve — Release Position . 118 

Fig. 32. D 8 Engineer's Brake Valve — Release Position . 122 

Fig. 33, D 8 Engineer's Brake Valve — Plan View of Rotary 

Seat 123 

Fig. 34. Rotary Valve of D 8 Engineers Brake Valve 

(bottom view) 124 

Plate VII. Nine and One-Half Inch Pump. 

Fig. 35. Nine and One-Half-Inch Pump, Front Section 
Fig. 36. Nine and One-Half-Inch Pump, Side Section . 
Fig. 37. Nine and One-Half-Inch Pump, Main Valve 

Bush 

Fig. 38. Eight-Inch Pump in Section . . . . 146 

Fig. 39. Right and Left Nine and One-Half-Inch Pump 150 



List of Illustrations. 



Plate VIII. 
Fig. 40 
Fig. 41 

Fig. 42. 

Fig. 43- 

Fig. 44. 

Fig. 45. 

Fig. 46. 

Fig. 47. 

Fig. 48. 

Fig. 49. 

Fig. 50. 

Fig. 51. 

Fig. 52. 

Fig. 53. 

Fig. 54. 
Plate IX. 

Fig. 55. 
Fig. 56. 

Fig. 57. 



Fig. 58. 
Fig. 59. 
Fig. 60. 



Plate X 


Fig. 


61. 


Fig. 


62 


Fig. 


63. 


Fig. 


64. 


Fig. 


65. 


Fig. 


66. 


Fig. 


67. 



Engines 



Engines 



Eleven-Incli Pump. 
Eleven-inch Pump, Front Section 
Eleven-inch Pump, Side Section 

Improved Pump Governor 

Old Style Pump Governor 

Water Brake on Simple Engine . 

Baldwin Water Brake for Compound 
Side View 

Baldwin Water Brake for Compound 
Front View 

Signal Equipment on Engine 

Signal Equipment on Passenger Car 

Air Signal Strainer 

Car Discharge Valve 

Signal Valve ..... 

Improved Signal Reducing Valve 

Signal Whistle .... 

Old Style Reducing Valve 

High-Speed Brake Equipment. 

High-Speed Automatic Reducing Vah 

Section of High-Speed Reducing Valve Showing 
Position of Ports in Emergency Stop 

Section of High-Speed Reducing Valve Showing 
Position of Ports with Cylinder Pressure 
Slightly Exceeding 60 Pounds 

Section of High-Speed Reducing Valve Showing 
Position of Ports in Release Position 

High-Speed Reducing Valve Shown Attached 
to Car 

Showing Comparative Efficiency of Westing- 
house Brakes 

Schedule U or High-Pressure Control Apparatus. 

Safety Valve 

Diagrammatic Representation of Combined Auto- 
matic and Straight-Air Brake .... 

Double Check Valve 

Straight-Air Brake Valve 

Straight-Air Brake Valve 

Straight-Air Brake Valve 

Straight- Air Brake Valve 



PAGE 



155 

164 

166 

168 
170 
172 
173 
174 
176 

177 

178 

179 
187 
1 89 



189 
189 
191 

193 
199 

202 
204 
208 
208 
209 
209 



List of Ili^ustrations. 



Fig. 
Fig. 

Fig. 

Fig. 

Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 



68, 
69. 

70. 

71. 

72. 

73- 
74. 
75. 



Section Through Straight-Air Brake Valve 
Duplex Main Reservoir Regulation, Method of 

Piping 

Method of Drilling Brake Valve for Duplex 

Main Reservoir Regulation 
Method of Drilling Brake Valve for Duplex 

Main Reservoir Regulation 
Controlling Valve, End Section . 
Controlling Valve, Side Section . 
Portable Yard Testing Plant, Side View 
Portable Yard Testing Plant, End View 
Plate XI. Cleaner's Test for Triple Valves, including : 
Fig. 76. Cleaner's Test, Side View .... 
Fig. 77. Cleaner's Test, Top View .... 
Fig. 78. Cleaner's Test, End View .... 
Plate XII. Shop Repair Test for Triple Valves, including 
Fig. 79. Shop Repair Test, Side View 

80. Shop Repair Test, Top View 

81. Shop Repair Test, End View 
Air Brake Recording Gauge, Revolving Type 
Air Brake Recording Guage, Horizontal Type 
Eever of First Class ..... 
Lever of First Class, Applied to Car Wheel 

Lever of Second Class 

Lever of Second Class, Applied to Car Wheel 

Lever of Third Class ..... 

Lever of Third Class, Applied to Car Wheel 

Hodge System of Leverage .... 

Steven's System of Leverage 

Hodge System of Leverage . . . • 

Leverage System for Tenders 

American Driver-Brake Leverage 

Showing Markings on Air Hose . 

Method of Testing Hose .... 





Fig. 




Fig. 


Fig. 


82. 


Fig. 


83. 


Fig. 


84. 


Fig. 


85. 


Fig. 


86. 


Fig. 


87. 


Fig. 


88. 


Fig- 


89 


Fig. 


90. 


Fig. 


91- 


Fig. 


92. 


Fig. 


93- 


Fig. 


94. 


Fig. 


95. 


Fig. 


96. 



BEGINNINGS OF THE 

AIR BRAKE 



Q. What is an air brake ? 

A. A brake worked by compressed air. 

Q, What was the first form of air brake used ? 
A. The straight air brake. 

Q, By whom and when was it invented ? 
A. By George Westinghouse, Jr., in 1869. 

Q, What forms of brake did it supplant ? 
A. The hand and the spring brakes. 

Q. What parts were necessary to operate the 
straight air brake ? 

A. An air pump, main reservoir, a valve called the 
three-way cock used to control the application and release 
of the brakes, a train pipe, and brake cylinders. 

Q, What parts were on the engine ? 

A. A main reservoir, pump, and engineer's valve. 

Q. What parts were on the car ? 
A. The train pipe and cylinder. 

Q, Where was the braking power stored with this 
system ? 

A. In the main reservoir on the engine. 



1 8 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. How were tJie brakes applied ? 

A. By changing the position of the three-way cock 
on the engine so as to allow the main reservoir pressure 
to flow into the train line. The train line, connected 
directly with the brake cylinder, allowed air to pass into 
the cylinder, forcing the pistonout and applying the brake. 

Q, Why was this brake ^uisatisfactory ? 

A. For several reasons. First, the tendency of the 
brake was to apply soonest at the head end of the train. 
If they were applied suddenly the slack running ahead 
would cause severe shocks and damage. Second, if a 
hose burst in the train, the brakes could not be set with 
air, as it would pass out the burst hose to the atmosphere. 
Third, on a long train the main reservoir pressure would 
equalize with that in the train line and brake cylinders 
at a low pressure on account of the large space to be filled; 
before the brakes were full set the engineer w^ould have 
to allow the pump to compress air into the train line and 
brake cylinders, and before maximum braking power 
was obtained the train would be stopped. Fourth, the 
efi'ect of friction on the flow of air from main reservoir 
through a long train made this brake slower. 

Q, What was the next form after the straight 
air brake ? 

A. The automatic. 

Q, By whom and when was it i^ivented ? 
A. By George Westinghouse, Jr., in 1873. 

Q. What gains over the hand brake are made 
with the air brake ? 

A. With a train of fifty modern equipped air-brake 
cars, a full and harder set brake is obtained on the entire 
train more quickly than a hand brake can be set on one 
car. Since trains handled on heavy grades have to be 



Beginnings of the Air Brake. 19 

slowed down for the purpose of recharging, by this means 
the wheels are given a chance to cool. With the hand 
brakes used on heavy grades, the shoes grind against the 
wheels down nearly, or quite all of the grade so that often 
the train is wrecked because the wheels are heated to so 
high a temperature that they break. Air brakes give 
us an increased speed of trains with greater safety. 

Q, What brake followed the plain-aMtomatic 
brake ? 

A. The quick-action brake, which almost imme- 
diately superseded the plain-automatic brake in 
passenger service, and did very quickly in freight service. 
With this improved apparatus the brake on the last of 
a fifty-car train could, if so desired, be applied in two 
and one-half seconds from the movement of the brake 
valve handle on the engine. 

Q. Is the quick-action brake still i^i use ? 

A. Yes ; all passenger and freight cars are now 
equipped with this brake, but at present a modified form 
is coming into general use in passenger, mail and ex- 
press service. The modified form is known as the high- 
speed brake, the operation of which is described in 
another part of this book. Plate I shows the parts em- 
ployed and general arrangement of same on an engine, 
tender and passenger car. 

Q. Have a^iy modifications in the general equip- 
ment of the quick-action brake been made in freiglit 
service ? 

A. Not in the car equipment itself aside from the 
addition of the retaining valve. The engine equipment, 
though having been gradually developed, still remains 
the same in general, excepting some modifications that 
have been made to meet special conditions. These 
special modifications include the high pressure control 
apparatus commonly known as schedule U, the dupiex 



20 Air-Brakb Catechism. 

method of main reservoir regulation and the combined 
automatic and straight-air brake, all of which are 
illustrated and described in detail in other parts of this 
book. The general arrangement of the brake equipment 
on a freight engine, freight-engine tender and freight 
car is shown on Plate II. 

Q, What else has been developed along with the 
ai7'-brake apparatus used 171 passenger service ? 

A. The air whistle signal system, a general plan of 
which is shown on the passenger equipment in Plate I. 



THE WESTINGHOUSE AUTOMATIC BRAKE. 

Q, Where was the difference in the equipment 
between the straight air and aittomatic brake made ? 

A. Besides the train line and brake cylinder, a plain 
triple and an auxiliary reservoir were added to the car. 

Q, With the cars equipped with the automatic 
brake, what gain was made over the straight air 
brake ? 

A. (i) The necessary braking power, regardless of 
the length of the train, was stored in the auxiliary under 
each car for that car, so that the brakes could be full set 
very quickly compared to the action of the straight air 
brake. (2) If the train broke in two or a hose burst, 
the triples would automatically apply the brakes, while 
with the straight air the brakes could not be applied. 

Q. What was the essential feature of the auto- 
matic brake ? 

A. The triple valve known as the "plain triple, 

Q. Where was it located ? 

A. On the car, at the junction of the train line, 
auxiliary, and brake cylinder. 

Q, Did the pump and three-way cock remain 071 
the engine ? 

A. Yes ; this was left for later developmento 



PLAIN TRIPLE. 

Q. In the study of the triple valve what is the 
viain tiling to be borne in mi^id in order to undei^- 
stand its operation and its probable action tinder the 
viany and varied conditions which are ejicountered 
171 actual service ? 

A. In the study of the triple valve, as well as almost 
any other part of the air-brake or air-signal apparatus, 
a clearer understanding will result if one starts at a 
problem by first asking himself the question. Which is 
the greater or controlling pressure acting on the part 
under consideration ? With this point thoroughly under- 
stood the resultant action of the parts in question can be 
readily traced ; for instance, if a brake is applied, and 
there is a leak in the auxiliary reser\^oir, we know that 
this will have the effect of lowering the pressure on one 
side of the triple piston. We then know that the 
tendency will be for the piston to move away from the 
greater or trainpipe pressure, and, as will be explained 
later, this defect will cause the release of the brake in 
question. 

Q, Name the different parts of the plain triple 
valve ^ Plate IV, 

A. 13 and 15 are the cut-out cock and the handle ; 8^ 
the graduating post; 9, the graduating spring; m and 



Plain Triple. 23 

n are feed ports ; 5 is the triple piston ; 6, the slide 
valve 5 7 is the graduating valve which works inside 
the slide valve; 12, a piston-packing ring; 18, slide- 
valve spring ; F, the port leading to the auxiliary ; X 
leads to brake cylinder ; W leads to train-line pressure. 

Q. For what are valve ij and handle i^ used? 

A. They permit the triple to be used as straight air, 
automatic or cut out entirely, as illustrated by the cut 
(Fig. I, Plate IV). 

Q, What three positions has the handle 75 
{Fig.i)? 

A. As shown in the cut, by the different positions of 
the handle: so that the triple would be cut. in, as it is 
with the handle 15 at right angles to the triple ; point- 
ing straight down, in which case, air coming in at W 
from the train line would go through port e of the plug- 
cock 13 and out into the brake cylinder through X; or 
the handle could stand at an angle of 45^, in which 
position ports f^ a and d would all be blanked. 

In the first position the triple is cut in as automatic, 
in the second for straight air, and in the third the triple 
is cut out entirely. 

Q. Can the modern plain triple now sent out be 
cut into straight air ? 
A. No. 

Q, Why not? 

A. Because, as shown in Figs. 2, 3 and 4, Plate IV, 
the handle 15 and plug 13 are no longer used. The 
cut-out cock is now placed in the crossover pipe (Plate I). 

Q, Why '^^as it necessary to have it so arranged 
that it could be cut in as straight air ? 

A. When the brakes were gradually being changed 



24 Air-Brake Catechism. 

from straight air to automatic, it sometimes happened 
that only a few cars in the train had the triple applied* 
In this case the handle 15 was turned so as to cut the car 
into straight air to be used with the other straight air cars. 

Q, Of what use are 8 and g (^Fzg, /) ? 

A. In applying the brakes, when piston 5 moves 
out and touches the stem 8, held by the graduating spring 
9 (Fig. i), the piston is stopped, if a gradual reduction is 
being made on the train line, w^hen the piston has 
drawn the slide valve down far enough to make a port 
connection between the auxiliary and cylinder. 

Q. If a quick rediictio7i is being 7nade on the 
train line, will the spring q stop the triple piston ? 

A. No; a quick reduction causes the triple piston 5 
to move out quickly, and the sudden impact compresses 
the spring 9, allowing the piston 5 to move out until it 
strikes gasket 11, to what is known as emergency 
position. 

Q. 5 {Fig. i) is called the triple piston. How is it 
actuated? 

A. Train-line pressure is on the lower side of the 
piston and auxiliary pressure on the upper or slide^ 
valve side. It is by changing these pressures that the 
piston is moved. 

Q, What are the duties of the piston as it moves ? 

A. To open and close the feed ports m and n (Fig. i ) 
through which the train-line pressure flows into the auxil- 
iary, to move the graduating valve 7 and the slide valve 6. 

Q, What is the duty of the graduating valve 7 
{Fig. /) ? 

A. It is the small valve inside the slide valve, and its 
duty as it is moved backward and forward by the triple 
piston is to open and close the port p through which, in 



PI.AIN Triple. 25 

the service application, auxiliary pressure flows to the 
brake cylinder. 

Q, Does the graduating valve move every timj 
the triple piston moves? 

A. Yes, because it is fastened to the stem of the 
piston by a pin which passes through both the gradu- 
ating valve and the stem of the triple piston. The pin 
is represented by the dotted lines running through the 
lower end of the graduating valve at right angles to it. 

Q, Could we get along without the graduating 
valve f 

A. Yes, but the sensitiveness of the triple would be 
destroyed. 

Q, How does the graduating valve make the 
triple se^isitive? 

A. A reduction of train-line pressure causes the 
triple to assume service position, and after the auxiliary 
pressure has expanded to a trifle below that in the train 
line, piston 5 (Fig.3)nioves back and closes the graduating 
valve on its seat. Train-line pressure had simply to 
overcome the friction on the triple piston-packing ring 
to do this, but had we no graduating valve the train- 
line pressure would have had to be strong enough to 
overcome the additional friction of the slide valve to 
move it back far enough to close portp. When wishing 
to apply brakes harder, a heavier reduction would be 
necessary to again move the slide valve to service 
position. With the graduating valve, the slide valve is 
moved to service position with the first reduction, where 
it remains until the brake is released or in case the 
emergency is used. 

Q. What are the duties of the slide valve ? 

A. In the plain triple, when moved by the triple 
piston, it serves to make a connection between the 



26 Air-Brake Catechism. 

auxiliary and the brake cylinder or between the brake 
cylinder and the atmosphere. 

Q. Does the slide valve move every time the 
piston moves f 

A. No ; the slide valve will not move when the 
piston starts down until it has moved far enough for the 
lug just above i8 (Fig. i) to strike the valve. The 
same, if the piston is down full stroke; when it starts 
back the slide valve will not move until the piston has 
gone back far enough to seat the graduating valve. 

Q. Of what use is the spring i8^ Fig. i ? 

A. Its duty is to hold the slide valve on its seat and 
to prevent dirt from collecting there when there is no 
auxiliary pressure to hold the valve on its seat, as when 
the car is "dry." 

Q. What is the difference in the four triple 
valves shown on Plate IV? 

A. They are all plain triple valves, but the one 
showing release position is the older type which could 
be cut into straight air. The other three represent the 
modern valve which is cut out or in by means of a cut- 
out cock placed in the cross-over pipe between the 
drain cup and triple valve. 



FUNCTIONS OF THE TRIPLE IN THE 
OPERATION OF THE BRAKE. 

Q. Why is this valve called the triple valve ? 
A. Because it automatically does three things : 
charges the auxiliary, applies the brake and releases it. 

Q. If an engine couples to a car that is not 
charged, how does the triple charge the auxiliary on 
the car when the hose is coupled and the angle 
cocks turned so as to allow the compressed air to 
flow into the traiii line on this car from the engine? 

A. A cross-over pipe from the main train line couples 
to the triple at TF(Fig. i). The pressure from the train 
line passes into the triple at IF, through port c as indicated 
by the arrow into cavity B; thence through the feed 
ports m and n into the chamber where the slide valve 
moves and out into the auxiliary at Y, 

Q. How long does the air continue to flow into 
the auxiliary ? 

A. Just as long as the train-line pressure is greater 
than that in the auxiliary, that is, until the pressures 
are equal on the two sides of the triple piston 5. 

Q, How are the two sides of the piston referred 
to? 

A. The lower side, having train-line pressure on it, 
is called the train-line side of the piston, and the upper 
side, having auxiliary pressure on it, the auxiliary or 
slide-valve side. 



28 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q, What is necessary to cause piston 5 {Fig, /) 
to move from release positioft ? 

A. Any reduction of train-line pressure ; a break in 
the hose ; the use of his valve by the engineer to make 
a train-line reduction. 

Q. If a reduction of train-line pressure is madey, 
how does the triple respond ? 

A. Auxiliary pressure now being greater forces the 
triple piston down. 

Q, What two things does the piston do when if 
starts to move down ? 

A. It closes the feed grooves m and n and moves the 
graduating valve from its seat. 

Q, Does the slide valve m^ove as soon as the 
piston ? 

A. No, not until the lug above 18 (Fig. i) is drawn 
down far enough to rest against the slide valve. 

Q, What does the slide valve do as soon as the 
lug strikes and moves it down ? 

A. It first closes the exhaust port g which in release 
position connected the brake cylinder with the atmos- 
phere through X^ dy e^ f^ g^ h and k, 

Q. How far dow7i does the triple piston travel ? 

A. Until the projecting stem of the piston strikes 
the stem 8 held by the graduating spring 9 (Fig. 2). 

Q. When these stems touch, how does the slide 
valve stand ? 

A. Port p of the slide valve is in front of port /, 
and, as the graduating valve was pulled from its seat 
when the piston first moved, the auxiliary pressure is 
now free to pass into the slide valve through port i, 



Functions of the Triple. 29 

called the service or graduating port, which leads into 
port p. The air passes through ports l^p^P^f-f^ and 
out through Xto the brake cylinder. 

Q, How long does the graduating valve remain 
^ff its seat so as to allow auxiliary pressure to flow 
to the brake cylinder ? 

A. We reduced the train-line pressure to allow the 
greater auxiliary pressure to move the piston down and 
open the service or graduating port p between the auxil- 
iary and cylinder. Just as long as the auxiliary pressure 
is greater, the piston will stay down and the graduating 
A^alve remain unseated. As the auxiliary pressure ex- 
pands into the brake cylinder it gradually becomes less 
until, when the train-line pressure becomes enough 
greater than that in the auxiliary to overcome the fric- 
tion on the packing ring 12 (Fig. 3), the piston auto- 
matically moves back and seats the graduating valve. 

Q. Does the slide valve move ? 
A. No, not now. 

Q, Why not ? 

A. The train-line pressure was just strong enough 
to overcome the friction on the packing ring 12, move 
the piston back, and close the graduating valve. With 
the ports all closed the piston would also have to com- 
press the air in the auxiliary to go back any farther. 
Then, too, the pressure left in the auxiliary acting to 
force the slide valve on its seat produces a friction, if the 
valve were moved, that the train-line pressure as it stands 
is not sufficiently strong to overcome. 

Q, How do the auxiliary and train-line press- 
ures now stand ? 

A. Practically equal, although the auxiliary pressure 
had to be a trifle less to allow the triple piston to be 
moved back sufficiently to seat the graduating valve. 



30 Air-Brakb Catechism. 

Q. The brake is now partially applied and the 
triple is on what is termed lap position ; what 7nust 
be done to apply the brake harder ? 

A. Another reduction of train-line pressure must be 
made. 

Q, How does this set the brake tighter ? 

A. The auxiliary pressure once more being stronger 
than that on the train line forces the triple piston down 
until it is again stopped by the graduating post. This 
movement is just sufficient to unseat the graduating 
valve, the slide valve remaining where it was with its 
service port p (Fig. 2) in front of the brake cylinderc 
About the same amount of air pressure passes from the 
auxiliary to the cylinder that was taken from the train 
line, and the piston once more having a trifle more 
pressure on the train line than on the auxiliary side moves 
back sufficiently to seat the graduating valve. 

Q. How long can these train-line reductions con- 
timie to be made and cause the brake to set harder ? 

A. Until the pressures have finally equalized be- 
tween the auxiliary and the brake cylinder. 

Q. After the auxiliary and brake-cylinder press- 
tires were equal, would the brake set any harder if 
all train-li^ie pressure were thrown to the atmos- 
phere ? 

A. No ; when the brakes are full set the auxiliar}^ 
and brake-cylinder pressures are equal, and a further re- 
duction of train-line pressure would only be a waste of 
air that the pump would have to replace in order to re- 
lease the brakes. 

Q, If a further train-line reduction were made 
after the brake was full set, would piston 5 {Fig, /) 



Functions of the Triple. 31 

move any farther than until the piston and 
graduating post touched? 

A. Yes ; the spring 9 could not withstand the auxil- 
iary pressure, as it is so much in excess of the reduced 
train-line pressure, and the piston would move down 
until it seated on gasket 11. In this position there 
would be a direct connection across the end of the slide 
valve between the auxiliary and brake cylinder, but the 
brake would not set any tighter, as the auxiliary and 
brake- cylinder pressures were already equal. 

Q. The brake is now full set. What is neces- 
sary to release it ? 

A. It is necessary to get the pressure on the train- 
line side of the triple piston greater than that on its 
auxiliary side. 

Q, How is this done ? 

A. By moving the handle of the engineer's valve so 
as to connect the pressure of ninety pounds, stored in the 
large main reservoir on the engine, with the train line. 
Air flowing from the main reservoir into the train line 
causes the pressure on the train-line side of the triple 
piston to be sufficiently strong to overcome auxiliary 
pressure and force the triple piston to release position. 

Q. Whe7i the triple is forced to release position 
the slide and graduating valves are carried with it. 
What two port openiitgs are made in this position ? 
A. One between the train line and auxiliary through 
the feed ports m and n (Fig. i) ; and one from the brake 
cylinder to the atmosphere through ports d, ^, /, 5', h 
and k. The triple is in release as shown in the cut. 

Q. We notice that the feed grooves m and n {Fig. 
/) are very small, Hozv long would it take to charge 
an auxiliary from zero to seventy pounds with a 



32 Air-Brake Catechism. 

.constant pressure of seventy pozcnds on the t'^ain 
line J using the triple now sent out ? 

A. About seventy seconds ; and occasionally a little 
longer. 

Q. Will it charge more quickly than this with 
>a greater pressure tha7i seventy pounds on the train 
line ? 

A. Yes. 

Q. Had we a train of fifteen cars, could we 
.charge the fifteen auxiliaries as fast as we could 
one ? 

A. No, because we now have fifteen feed grooves 
in the triples drawing air from the train line, and 
the pump cannot compress air fast enough to keep 
the train-line pressure at seventy pounds. 

Q, Why not make these feed grooves larger so 
as to charge the auxiliaries "^nore quickly ? 

A. The purpose is to make the grooves sufficiently 
small that on a long train the auxiliaries will charge 
alike. On a long train there is a tendency for the head 
auxiliaries to charge faster than the rear ones, if the 
triple feed grooves are larger than those now used. 

Q. What is likely to happen if some auxiliaries 
charge faster than others ? 

A. As the air is fed from the main reservoir back 
into the train line until those pressures are equal, and 
as the pump will not, on a long train, supply air as fast 
as the triple feed grooves take it from the train line, it 
follows that the auxiliaries which charge the slower will 
continue to feed from the train line and cause a reduction 
that will set some of the head brakes. 

Q, So far we have spoken of the action of the 
J)lain triple only in the service application. What 



Functions of the Triple. 33 

is the difference between the service and the enter- 
gency ? 

A. In service the brakes set gradually, while in 
emergency they go on very suddenly. 

Q. A gradual reduction sets the brakes in ser- 
vice. What kind of a reduction is necessary to set 
the brakes in emergency ? 

A. A sudden reduction. 

Q. Describe the emergency action of the plain 
triple, 

A. The suddenness of the train-line reduction causes 
piston 5 (Fig. 4) to move down suddenly, striking the 
stem 8 a quick, sharp blow which the graduating spring 
9 is not stiff enough to withstand. The piston travels 
down full stroke and bottoms on gasket 1 1 . This is emer- 
gency position, and the slide valve has been drawn down 
so that air coming through Y from the auxiliary passes 
across the end of the slide valve directly into the large 
port / leading to the brake cylinder without first going 
through the small service port p in the slide valve, as it 
did in the service position. 



^ 



Q. Why does the brake set more quickly ? 

A. Because the air goes direct to the cylinder through 
a larger port than is used in service. 

Q, Do we gain any more pressure with the plain 
triple in emergency than in full service ? 

A. No ; in both cases the auxiliary pressure equal- 
izes with that in the brake cylinder, but in emergency 
these pressures equalize more quickly because of the air 
reaching the brake cylinder through a larger port. 

Q, Are plain triples still used ? 



34 Air-Brake CatkchisMo 

A. Yes, but they are used almost entirely on engines 
and tenders. Their use on cars is confined principally 
to those equipments put on before the quick-action triple 
was introduced. 

Q Is a plain triple valve always 7isedon tenders? 

A. No ; the present practice is to use a plain triple 
valve on the tenders of freight and switch engines ; on 
the tenders of passenger engines a quick-action triple 
valve is being used. 

Q, What has led to the nse of a quick-action 
valve on passenger-engine tenders f 

A. The general introduction of the high-speed brake 
in passenger, mail, and express service is responsible for 
this practice having become general, although some 
roads have been using quick-action triples on their 
tenders in both freight and passenger service for some 
tim.e. 



VIERGENCY PO 



X ij pir&TAP 

TO BRAKE CYLINDER 




V2 PIPE TAP 
TO TRAIN! line: 

W 



^E Valve, Lap Pq Valve, Emergency Position. 



PLATE IV.— PLAIN TRIPLE VALVE SHOWN IN RELEASE, SERVICE, LAP, AND EMERGENCY POSITIONS. 






LINE TO AUXILIARY RESERVOIR 




Fig. I.— Old Style Plain Triple Valve, Release Position. Fig. 2. — New Style Plain Triple Valve, Service Position. Fig. 3.— New Style Plain Triple Valve, Lap Position. Fig. 4.— New Style Plain Triple Valve, Emergency Position. 



THE WESTINGHOUSE QUICK-ACTION 
TRIPLEc 

Q, When and by whom was the quick-action 
triple inve^tted ? 

A. In 1887, by George Westinghouse, Jr. 

Q, We already had the plain triple. Why was 
the quick-action triple necessary ? 

A. The plain triple was satisfactory so long as only 
the service application was used, but not so with the 
emergency application on a long train. In this latter 
case the head brakes were full set so much sooner than 
those on the rear, that the slack of the train ran ahead 
and often did great damage. 

Q, What two important advantages are gained 
by the quick-action triple ? 

A. We are enabled to set the brakes throughout the 
train before the slack has a chance to run ahead and do 
damage, and not only does the brake set more quickly in 
emergency, but it is also set harder, thus permitting a 
quicker stop and a higher safe speed for trains. 

Q. In the use of the service application, what is 
the difference between the action of the plain and 
the quick-action triples ? 

A. None whatever ; their action and the parts em- 
ployed are identical, excepting the additional ports placed 
in the slide valve of the quick-action triple, which are 
used only in emergency. 



36 Air-Brakk CaTKCHISMo 

Q. Will these two kinds of triples scattered 
through a train work together properly in service ? 
A. Perfectly o 

Q, Name the different parts of the quick-action 
triple not found in the plain triple, 

A. The strainer 16 (Fig. 5)- The additional port s 
in the slide valve and the removed corner of the slide valve 
shown in Fig. 10. 8 is the emergency piston. 10 is the 
emergency or, as it is more commonly called, the rubber- 
seated valve. 15 is called the train-line check, also the 
emergency check. 

Q. Of what use is the strainer 16^ Plate V? 

A. Strainer 16 is to keep dirt from getting into the 
triple in such a way as to close the small feed ports i 
and ]c, 

Q, Of what use is piston 8 ? 

A. If the triple is moved so as to allow auxiliary 
pressure to get into port i on top of piston 8, this piston 
will be forced down, thereby forcing the emergency valve 
10 from its seat. 

Q, What is done when the rubber-seated or 
emergency valve 10 {Fig, 8) is forced from its seat? 

A. All air escapes from cavity Y and allows train- 
line pressure to force the train-line check 15 from its 
seat. 

Q, Of what tise is the check valve 75 ? 

A. If a hose breaks in the train line, the brakes would 
go full set on the whole train and, with no air in the 
train line, were it not for the check valve 15, brake- 
cylinder pressure coming in at c would force valve 10 
from its seat and pass direct to the train line through 
cavity Kand out of the broken or parted hose. In such 
a case the brakes would not stay set. 



The Wkstinghouse Quick- Action Tripi^e. 2)1 

Q. Explain the action of the quick-action triple 
in emergency, 

A. A quick train-line reduction causes the auxiliary 
pressure to force the triple piston out the full length of 
chamber h (Fig» 8)^ the graduating spring 22 being com- 
pressed on account of its inability to withstand the sudden 
blow from the triple piston. 

With the triple piston in the extreme position to the 
left, or that of emergency, port s of the slide valve is 
in front of port r, thus establishing a connection be- 
tween the auxiliary and brake cylinder. At the same 
time the removed corner of the slide valve, shown in Fig. 
lo, is in front of port i leading to the top of the emer- 
gency piston 8. The auxiliary pressure forcing piston 
8 down unseats the emergency valve lo. This valve 
being unseated allows all pressure to escape from cavity 
Y . With no pressure in cavity F to hold the train-line 
check to its seat, the train-line pressure under the check 
raises it and passes into cavity Y over seat of valve lo to 
cavity X and out at c into the brake cylinder ; at the 
same time the auxiliary pressure is entering the cylinder 
through port r. As soon as the pressures equalize, piston 
8, valve lo, and check 15 go to their normal positions. 

Q. Of zvhat tisc are Figs, g and 10 f 

A. Fig. 10 gives a better idea of the location of the 
ports in the slide valve ; Fig. 9 , the location of the ports 
in the bushing inside of which the slide valve works. 

Q, Name the parts, 

A. 26 (Fig. 5) is the drain plug; 16, the train-line 
strainer; 20, the graduating nut ; 2i , the graduating stem 
or post ; 22, the graduating spring ; 4, the triple piston ; 
y, the piston stem ; i and ^, the feed ports ; 6, the slide- 
valve spring; 3, the slide valve; 7, the graduating 
valve ; w^ the service or graduating port ; n, the exhaust 



38 Air-Brake Catkchism, 

port ; s^ the emergency port ; ^, a continuation of the 
service port w/ 15, the train-line or emergency check; 
12, the train-line check spring; 10, the emergency or 
rubber-seated valve ; 8, the emergency piston. The 
exhaust port p leads around outside the brass bushing to 
the atmosphere as shown in Fig. 9 by the dotted lines. 

Q. What views do Plate V represent f 
A. The triple valve in its four positions ; release, 
service, lap, and emergency positions. 

Q, We have seen that with the quick-action 
triple the brakes ai^e set harder in emergency. Are 
brakes set in emergency a^iy harder to release ? 

A. They are with quick-action triples only. 

Q. Why ? 

A. With the quick-action triples air from the train 
line helps set the brakes in emergency, and the press- 
ures equalize higher ; therefore the train-line pressure 
must be made higher to overcome the auxiliary pressure 
and force the triple piston to release position. 

With the plain triple the pressures equalize at the 
same pressure as in service. 

Q, In Fig. 5 a packing ring ji is shown i^i the 
emerge}icy piston. Is this 7lng found in all quick- 
action triple valves ? 

A. It is in all modern passenger triples but not in 
freight valves. The small port in piston 8 is also found 
in passenger valves only. 

Q, After a partial service applicatio7i has been 
made^ ca7t we get the quick-action f 

A. This depends on the amount of reduction that 
has been made in service and upon the piston travel. 
In no case can w^e gain as much after making even 
a small servdce reduction as we could if the sudden 



The Westinghouse Quick-Action Triple. 39 

reduction were made when the auxiliaries were fully 
charged and the brakes released. 

After a light reduction a gain over the pressure 
obtained in full service can be made by going to 
emergency position if the piston travel is a fair length, 
but not with short travel. 

By using the emergency after a partial service 
application, even we made no gain of pressure, we 
would get the full service more quickly » 

Q, How quick must a reductio7t be made on 
the train line to throw a triple into quick action ? 

A. Faster than the auxiliary pressure can get to the 
brake cylinder through the service port in the slide 
valve. In this case the graduating spring will not hold 
the triple piston from traveling full stroke. 

Q. When a t7Hple is thrown into qitick action, 
which pressure^ auxiliary or train line, reaches the 
brake cylinder first? 

A. Just a flash of auxiliary pressure reaches the 
cylinder as the service port in the slide valve passes the 
port leading to the cylinder, but the air from the train 
line reaches the cylinder first in any considerable 
volume, as the corner cut off from the slide valve allows 
the auxiliary pressure to strike piston 8 and force the 
rubber-seated valve 10 from its seat before port s comes 
in front of port r. 

Q, Why is port s {Figs. 8 and 16)^ used in emer- 
gency, made smaller than port z, used in service, to let 
auxiliary pressure into the brake cylinder ? 

A. So as to hold the auxiliary pressure back in 
emergency and allow as much air as possible to enter the 
brake cylinder from the train line. 



PECULIARITIES AND TROUBLES OF 
THE TRIPLE. 

From what follows it may seem that a triple will get 
out of order under any slightest provocation. This how- 
ever is not true ; it is a constant source of wonder to see 
the fine action of triple valves which have little or poor 
care. A triple needs no more care than any other piece 
of mechanism to keep it doing first-class work. The 
aim of what follows is to bring out its possibilities. 

Q, What could wholly or partially stop the 
chargijig of an auxiliary f 

A. The strainer in the train line where the cross- 
over pipe leading to the triple joins the main train-line, 
or the strainer i6 in the triple (Fig. 5) being filled with 
dirt, scale, cinders or oil. Port i or k might be plugged, 
the triple might be cut out, or there might be a leak in 
the auxiliary which let the air out as fast as it came in. 

Q. If all auxiliaries did not charge equally fast ^ 
what would be the effect ? 

A. If we wish to apply the brakes very soon, the 
ones with the auxiliaries not fully charged would not re- 
spond to the first reduction. 

Q. Occasionally after coupling up the hose in a 
trai7i it is found that the brake on a car will not ap- 
ply 171 response to a reduction of train-line pressure. 
What might be the trouble other than those just de- 
scribed? 

A. It sometimes happens that the switch crew is re- 
sponsible for such an occurrence. Sometimes when an 



Peculiarities and Troubles of the Triple. 41 

air train is brought into a yard and the yard crew is in 
a hurry to " drill " the train with an engine not equipped 
with air, they do not always bleed the train in the 
proper manner. Instead of opening an angle cock and 
then bleeding all the reservoirs by hand, they put a 
piece of coal or wood under an arm of the release valve 
to do the work of holding the valve from its seat. In 
this way they save time for themselves but are a source 
of considerable bother to the ones who inspect the 
train. On account of the air escaping through a com- 
paratively large port, the leakage is not always de- 
tected without a careful examination. 

Q. IVill any other t7^otible result from the 
strainers being corroded or dij^ty ? 

A. Yes ; w^e might not be able to make a sufficiently 
quick reduction on the triple piston to get quick action. 

Q. One triple going into quick action makes a 
sudden train-line reduction which starts the 7iext 
triple^ arid that 0}ie the next^ and so on throughout 
the train. If jive or six cai^s together in the train 
were cut out^ or had plain triples^ or very dirty 
strainers^ would the triples back of these go into 
quick action when the engirieer made a sudden re- 
duction ? 

A. No, on account of the action or friction in the 
passage of the sudden reduction through the six car 
lengths of pipe. The friction gradually destroys the 
suddenness of the reduction, and there is only a slight 
and gradual reduction on the train-line back of the cars 
cut out. 

Q. What bad effect would follow if the e^tgineer 
did not continue snaking a reduction ? 

A. The air coming ahead from the back of the train 
would kick off the head brakes. 



42 Air-Brakb Catechism. 

Q, Could these brakes in the back of the train 
be applied? 

A. Yes, in service but not in emergency. 

Q, Water sometimes collects i^i cavity ij {Fig. 5) 
of the triple. Where does it come from? 
A. It works back from the pump. 

Q. What bad effect will water have in this 
place ? 

A. It is likely to freeze in winter and block the flow 
of air through the triple. 

Q, What should be done in such a case ? 

A. Apply burning waste and when thawed remove 
the drain plug 26 to remove the water or the trouble 
will recur. 

Q, What would be the effect of a weak or broken 
graduating spring? 

A. We would have nothing to stop the triple piston 
when it reached service position, and it would move on 
to emergency position. 

Q. If one triple goes into quick action, will the 
rest go ? 

A. Yes, as a sudden reduction is made on the train 
line through the emergency ports of the triple in this 
case. This sudden reduction starts the next and that 
the next and so on. 

Q, Will a weak or broken graduating spring 
always throw the triples into quick action ? 
A. No, only on a short train. 

Q, Why not on a long train ? 

A. On a short train, with a gradual train-line reduc- 
tion, air is drawn from the train line faster than the 



Pecuuarities and Troubles of the Triple. 43 

auxiliary pressure can get to the brake cylinder through 
the service port of the slide valve. When the auxiliary 
pressure is enough greater than that in the train line, it 
forces the triple piston to emergency position, as there is 
no graduating spring to stop it. 

On a long train, it takes longer to make a correspond- 
ing reduction on account of the larger volume of air in 
the train line. This gives the auxiliary pressure longer 
to pass into the cylinder, and as a result the train-line and 
auxiliary pressures keep about equal and the triple piston 
will not move to emergency position unless a sudden re- 
duction is made. 

Q. How many air cars must there be in a train 
so that a broken or weak graduating spring will 7iot 
affect the service applicatio7i ? 

A. Usually not less than six or seven; with more 
than this number, if otherwise the triples work properly, 
the graduating springs could be removed from all triples 
and no bad effect be noticed. 

Q. What two things will cause the triples to go 
into quick action regardless of the length of the 
train ? 

A. A sticky triple or a broken graduating pin. 
(The one which fastens the graduating valve to the 
piston stem as shown by the dotted lines. Fig. 5 . ) 

Q, Why will a sticky triple throw the brakes 
into emergency ? 

A. Because the triple does not respond to a light re- 
duction. When it does move, it jumps, and the sudden 
blow compresses the graduating spring and the triple is 
in the quick-action position. This car starts the rest as 
before explained. 

Q. Why will a broken graduating pin throw the 
brakes iiito emergency ? 



44 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A> Because with this pin broken there is nothing to 
move the graduating valve from its seat when the triple 
piston moves and the auxiliary pressure is acting to hold 
it on its seat. When a train-line reduction is made and 
the triple assumes service position, no air can leave the 
auxiliary and pass through the graduating or service 
port of the slide valve*, as the graduating valve is on its 
seat. When sufficieut train-line reduction has been 
made so that the graduating spring cannot withstand 
the auxiliary pressure acting on the piston, the triple 
goes to the quick-action position, and we get the quick 
action on this car and consequently on the rest as before 
explained. 

Q. Which of these three troubles — weak gradu- 
ating sprijig, broken graduating pin or sticky 
tiHple — will ustially be found to exist if the brakes 
go into emerge7tcy with a service reductio7i ? 

A. A sticky triple, and this usually means that the 
triple causing the trouble has had poor care. 

Q. Shall we get the same result regardless of the 
location of the faulty triple in the train ? 
A. Yes ; if one starts, all do. 

Q, What is tJie probable trouble with a brake 
which, when set i7i service, will sometimes remain 
set and sometimes release f 

A. A dirty slide valve which sometimes seats prop- 
erly and at others not ; in the latter case auxiliary press- 
ure escapes to the atmosphere through the exhaust port 
and allows train- line pressure to force this triple to re- 
lease position. 

Q. How may this defect be remedied ? 

A. Remove the triple piston and attached parts, 
clean carefully, loosen the packing ring without remov- 
ing and rub a little oil on the slide valve with the finger. 



Peculiarities and Troubles of the TriplEo 45 

Q. Why not pour on the oil ? 
A. Too much oil is bad, as it collects dust, which 
with the oil forms gum. This causes a triple to stick. 

Q. What effect will a leak in the train line have 
if the brakes are not set ? 

A. It will simply cause the pump to work to sup- 
ply it. 

Q. What effect if the brakes are set f 
A. It will cause them to leak on harder, 

Q, Will the leak cause only the brake on that car 
to leak on, or all? 

A. All, as the train line is continuous through the 
train. 

Q. What effect will a leak in an auxiliary have 
if a brake is released? 

A. It will keep the pump at work the same as a 
train-line leak. 

Q. What effect if the brakes are applied? 

Ao It will leak the brake off on the car where the 
leak is and then, drawing air from the train line through 
the feed ports, it will gradually set the other brakes 
tighter. 

Q, There are a number of leaks in the triple 
which will cause a blow at its exhaust port. Name 
the two most likely to prodtice this effect. 

A. A leaky slide valve or a leaky rubber-seated 
valve (Fig. 5). 

Q. How can we tell which of these is causing the 
trouble ? 

A. As the exhaust port on the slide valve is always 
in communication with the atmosphere, whether the 



46 Air-Brakb Catechism o 

brakes are applied or released, a leak on the face of the 
slide valve will cause a constant blowo 

Q. How else can we tell if it is the slide valve 
that causes the trouble ? 

A. Apply the brake, and if auxiliary pressure is 
leaking away across the slide valve, the brake will 
generally release, 

Q, How can we tell if the trouble is with the 
rubber-seated valve f 

A. The rubber-seated valve will cause a blow at the 
exhaust only when the brake is released. 

Q. Why ? 

A. The rubber-seated valve 10 (Fig. 5) leaking will 
allow the pressure to leave cavity F. The train-line 
pressure then raises check 15 and passes through cavity 
F across the rubber-seated valve, through cavity x, ports 
c and r, into the exhaust cavity n of the slide valve and 
out to the atmosphere through port p. When the brake 
is applied, port n in the slide valve is closed to port r, 
consequently the blow stops. 

Q. Where does the air which is leaking across 
the rubber-seated valve go after the brake is ap- 
plied? 

A. Direct to the brake cylinder through r, and this 
brake continues to set harder. 

Q. Why is a leaky rubber-seated valve more 
likely to slide the wheels on a car in a long train 
than in a short one ? 

A. After the brakes are applied, this leak allows the 
train-line and brake-cylinder pressures to equalize. With 
a long train line there is a much greater volume of air, 
and these pressures will equalize higher. 



Peculiarities and Troubles of the Triple. 47 

Q, How else ca7i we tell if the rubber-seated 
valve leaks? 

A. Turn the cut-out cock in the cross-over pipe 
from the train line to the triple after everything is 
charged : if the rubber-seated valve leaks, it will draw 
air from the train line ; with the cut-out cock closed, 
this leak is not being supplied, and the reduction will 
cause the brake on this car to apply. 

Q. Give another symptom which indicates a 
leaky rubber-seated valve, 

A. The leak above the check 15 caused the check to 
rise to supply it, and when the cavity is again charged 
the check closes. It sometimes rises and closes so fast 
as to make a loud buzzing sound. 

Q, What is usually the cause of leaking in a 
rubber-seated valve ? 

A. Dirt on the seat, a poor seat caused by wear, the 
use of oil on the quick-action part of the triple, or using 
too much oil in the brake cylinder, which will work into 
the triple and cause the rubber to decay. 

Q. If dirt is the source of the trouble, how may 
it be rcTnoved without taking the triple apart? 

A. Set the brake by opening the angle cock after 
closing the cock at the other end of the car. If there is 
dirt on the valve, it may be blown off in this way. 

Q. What besides the slide a7id rubber-seated 
valves will cause a blow at the exhaust port of the 
triple? 

A. Gasket 14 (Fig, 5) leaking between e and cavity X, 
or the gasket leaking between the brake cylinder and 
auxiliary where the triple is bolted to the cylinder. On 
freight equipments there is a pipe which runs inside the 
auxiliary to the brake cylinder ; this pipe leaking will 
also cause a blowo 



48 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. Are these leaks eomnion ? 

A. On the contrary they are very uncommon. The 
I3I0W is almost invariably due to a leaky slide or emer- 
gency valve. 

Q, What ejjeet would the leaking of graduating 
valve 7 {Fig- 5) have ? 

A. The action produced by such a leak is uncertain 
and depends greatly on the conditions connected with it. 
When the brake is applied, the triple assumes lap posi- 
tion after the auxiliary pressure is a trifle less than that 
in the train line. If the graduating valve leaks, the 
auxiliary pressure gradually reduces, and the train-line 
pressure forces the triple piston and slide valve back 
until the blank on the face of the slide valve between 
ports z and ;/ is in front of port r. If the graduating 
valve does leak, no more air can leave port z in this posi- 
tion, and the slide valve stops. This blank space is only 
a trifle wider than port r, so if the valve is in good con- 
dition and works smoothly, the brake should not release ; 
but if it works hard, it is likely to jump a little when it 
moves, and open the exhaust port. 

Q, Give a ride by whieh to tell how a leaky 
graduating valve will act, 

A. If the triple is in proper condition, a leaky grad- 
uating valve should not release a brake. If the triple is 
a trifle sticky, a brake is likely to be released. A leaky 
slide valve or a slight auxiliary leak in combination with 
a leakinof orraduatinof valve will release a brake. The 
action also depends upon the condition of the triple- 
piston packing ring which if com.paratively loose will 
permit train-line pressure to feed into the auxiliary 
reservoir as fast as its pressure escapes. If train-line and 
auxiliary pressures remain equal, the triple-piston is not 
affected, and the leakage by the graduating valve would 
not release the brake. 



Valve Bushing, 




PEATE v.— QUICK-ACTION TRIPLE VALVE SHOWN IN RELEASE, SERVICE, LAP, AND EMERGENCY POSITIONS. 





Fig. 9— Slide V^lve Bl 




Fig. io. — Slide Valve. 



Fig. 5._Quick-Action Triple Valve, Release Position. Fig. 6.-Quick-Action Triple Valve, Service Position. Fig. 7.-Quick-Action Triple Valve, Lap Position. Fig. 8.-Quick-Action Triple Valve, Emergency Position. 



WESTINGHOUSK FREIGHT EQUIPMENT. 

Q, Name the different parts of the equipme^it, 

A. 3 (Fig. 1 1 ) is the piston sleeve and head , 9 the release 
spring, 4 the front cylinder head, 2 the cylinder body, 
A the leakage groove, 7 the packing leather, 8 the 
expander ring, 6 the follower plate which holds the 
packing leather 7 to its place, B the pipe connecting the 
triple valve and brake cylinder, and 15 the gasket which 
makes a tight joint between the auxiliary, triple, and 
pipe B leading to the brake cylinder. 

Q. Explain the ttse of the release spring g 
{Fig. 11). 

A. When the brake is applied, air is put into the 
cylinder 2 through pipe 5, and the piston 3 is forced to 
the left, compressing the release spring. When the air 
is released from the brake cylinder, the duty of the 
release spring is to force the piston to release position as 
shown in the illustration. 

Q. What enters the sleeve j {Fig. 11^? 

A. The push rod through which the braking 
power is transmitted to the brake rigging. 

Q, Of what use is the expander ring 8 ? 

A. To keep the flange of the packing leather 7 
against the walls of the cylinder. The expander ring 
is a round spring. 

Q. Of what 2ise is the packing leather 7 f 



Westinghouse Freight Equipment. 51 

Ac As air enters the brake cylinder, the flange of the 
packing leather is forced against the walls of the cylin- 
der, thns making a tight joint to prevent the passage of 
the air by the piston and ont to the atmosphere through 
the open end of the cylinder at the left. If the leather 
leaks, the brake will leak oflf. 

Q, OfwJiat use is the leakage groove A {Fig, 11)? 

A. The piston as shown in the cut is in release 
position. If on a long train there should be any leak on 
the train line that would draw a triple piston out far 
enough to close the exhaust port in the slide valve, and 
there were a leak into the brake cylinder, the pressure 
would gradually accumulate and force the piston out, 
causing the shoes to drag on the wheels were it not for 
the leakage groove. This will allow any small leakage 
into the brake cylinder to pass through the groove and 
out of the other end of the cylinder to the atmosphere. 

If the brake connections are taken up so short that the 
piston will not travel by the leakage groove when the 
brake is set, the air will blow past the piston through 
the groove and release the brake on this car. In this 
case, were it not for the groove, the wheels would be 
slid. 

Q, What is the duty of the pipe B ? 

A. When the brake is applied, air passes from the 
auxiliary through the triple and pipe B to the cylinder. 

When the brake is released, air passes from the cylin- 
der through pipe B, the triple exhaust port and out to 
the atmosphere, or, if a retainer is used, it passes from the 
triple into the retainer pipe, which is screwed into the 
triple exhaust, and out of the retainer according to the 
position of its handle. 

Q, Of what ttse is the attxiliary 10 {Fig. 1 1^ ? 

A. This is where the supply of air is stored with 
which to apply the brake on this one cat. 



52 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



Q, What is the valve 07i top of the auxiliary ? 

A. It is called the release valve. By lifting on the 
handle of this valve the pressure in the auxiliary^ lo may 
be released. If this valve leaks, after the brake is 
applied, the reduction of auxiliary pressure thus made 
will release the brake. 

Q, What tise has the plug ii ? 

A. To drain off any accumulation of water in the 
auxiliary. 

Q. What harm will ensue if gasket ij leaks f 

A. The leak may be from the auxiliary to the 
atmosphere or from the auxiliary into pipe B leading to 
the brake cylinder. After the brake w^as applied, the 
reduction of auxiliary pressure caused by this leak 
would allow the train-line pressure to force this triple to 
release position and release this brake. The leak would 
then draw air from the train line through the triple feed 
ports, making a train-line reduction that with any other 
leaks on the train would help to creep on the other 
brakes. 

Q. Is the freight'Car equipment different from 
the air-brake equipment on the passenger car f 

A. It is smaller, but the principle of operation is the 
same. In a passenger equipment the pipe B does not 
run through the auxiliary, and the auxiliary and brake 
cylinder are not fastened together. The appearance is 
different, but, aside from size, they are alike. 

Q. Why has the oil plug been removed from the 
brake cy Haider ? 

A. So that it will be necessary to take the cylinder 
apart to clean it. Pouring oil into the oil hole is respon- 
sible for the ruination of rubber seats in emergency 
valves. 



Westinghouse Freight Equipment. 53 

Q. How many kinds of freight equipments are 
there and with what weights of cars are they used ? 

A. 6, 8 and lo-inch equipment ; 6-inch is used on 
freight cars the light weights of which are less than 
15,000 pounds; 8-inch between 15,000 and 40,000 
pounds ; and lo-inch when the light weight exceeds 
40,000 pounds. 

Q, Fig. II shows a standard equipment for 
freight cars ; are they ever furnished in any other 
form f 

A. Yes ; the space limitation on some cars forbids 
the use of the combined equipment illustrated in Fig. 
II. In such cases, what is known as the detached 
equipment is used, and the brake cylinder and auxiliary 
reservoir are connected by a suitable pipe. 

In very exceptional cases two cylinders are used in 
connection with one reservoir and one triple valve, but 
the principle of operation remains the same. The 
usual piston stroke is twelve inches, but this is reduced 
to eight inches where twin cylinders are used, and in 
some special combined and detached equipments. 



PISTON TRAVEL. 

Q, What deter7nines the amoitnt of travel a 
piston will have ? 

Ao The slack in the brake rigging and any lost mo- 
tion in the car brought out by the application of the 
brake. 

Q. How is the piston travel usually adjusted? 

Ac By changing the position of the dead truck 
levers, 

Q, Which is called the dead lever of a truck ? 
A. The one held stationary at the top with a pin. 

Q, What is the other lever on the truck called? 
A, The live leven 

Q, U^hat is the lever fastened to the piston 
-usually called ? 

Ac The piston lever. 

Q, What is the corresponding lever at the other 
end of the cylinder in a passenger equipment called? 
A. The cylinder lever. 

O. Are these levers ever spoken of differently ? 

A. Yes, sometimes both are referred to as cylinder 
levers. 

Q, In passenger equipment there is S07neti7nes a 
lever between the cylinder levers and truck levers^ 
one end of which is connected to the hand brake a7id 



Piston Travel. 55 

the other to the live truck lever. What is this lever 
usually called? 

A. The Hodge, or floating, lever ; the latter name is 
the one more commonly used. 

Q. We have seen in studying the triple valve 
that a five-pound train4i7ie reduction caused the 
triple to ptit five pounds from the auxiliary into the 
brake cylinder. How much pressure does this give 
us in the brake cylinder ? 

A. It depends upon the piston travel. It may be 
more or less than five pounds ; it might be five pounds. 

Q, Explain this answer. 

A. We notice that the auxiliary is much larger than 
the brake cylinder, and five pounds taken from the larger 
space and forced into a smaller will give a greater press- 
ure than that put in ; but it must be remembered that a 
small part of the air put into the cylinder goes through 
the leakage groove before the piston gets by and closes 
it. There is still another point. If no air were put into 
the brake cylinder and the piston were pulled out when 
the exhaust port was closed, a vacuum would be formed. 
When the air enters the cylinder it must first fill this 
space to atmospheric pressure before a gauge placed on 
the cylinder would begin to show any pressure. The 
longer the travel^ the more air it would take to fill the 
space and the less pressure there would be for the five 
pounds put into it. 

Q, Which would give a higher pressure for a 
given reduction, long or short piston travel? 
A. Short travel. 

Q. Why? 

A. Because with a short travel the same amount of 
^ir would be expanded into a smaller space. 



56 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



Q. With the freight equipment how much brake- 
cylinder pressure do we get for a seven-pound 
train-line reduction with a 6 and a g-inch travel? 

A. Referring to the table we see that we get 
seventeen and one-half pounds with the 6 inch, and 
eight pounds with the 9-inch travel. 



TRAIN PIPE 


PISTON TRAVEL AND RESULTANT CYLINDER PRESSURE * 


REDUCTION. 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


7 
10 

13 
16 

19 
22 

25 


25 
49 

• • 

• • 

• • 


23 
43 
56 

• • 

• • 


i7i 
34 
44 
54 


13 
29 

37i 
M\ 
51 


io| 

23J 

33 

41J 

47 

50 


8 

i9i 
29 

35 
40 

47* 


J PISTON NOT 

1 ENTIR ELY OUT. 

17 14 

24 20 

29 24 

36* 32 

44 39 

47 45 



*Air Brake Men's 1896 Proceedings. 

The above table is the result of tests made with a freight equip- 
ment. Each result is the average of several tests, and the brake was 
in good condition. There are two spaces where it says ** Piston not 
entirely out," where no brake-cylinder pressure is given for a seven- 
pound train-line reduction. This does not mean there was no press- 
ure there, as there must have been or the piston could not have gone 
out and compressed the cylinder release spring. The ordinary air 
gauge does not register any pressure less than five pounds, and with 
a seven-pound train-line reduction the pressure gotten in a ten- o^ 
eleven-inch piston travel is less than five pounds. 

Seventy pounds train-line pressure was used in making these tests - 



Q, With a sixteen-pound reduction ? 

A. Fifty-four pounds with the 6 inch, and thirty- 
five pounds with the 9 inch. 

Q. With a tzventy-two-pound reduction f 



Piston Travel. 57 

A. After the sixteen-pound reduction, the brake did 
not set any harder on the 6-inch travel because the 
auxiliary and brake-cylinder pressures equalized at that 
point, and this brake was full set. With the 9-inch travel 
the air from the auxiliary had 4 inches more space into 
which to expand, and the brake was not full set until 
a twenty-two-pound reduction had been made, giving- 
forty-seven and one-half pounds brake-cylinder pressure. 

Q, What does this show ? 

A. That a brake with a short piston travel is more 
powerful than one with a long travel ; that a brake with 
the auxiliary and brake-cylinder pressures equalized can- 
not be applied any harder by a further reduction of train- 
line pressure, and that if piston travel varied in a long^ 
train, between 4 and 11 inches, there would be no uni« 
formity in the braking power applied in the different 
parts of a train. 

Q. What zuould be the pressure, with the travel 
as given in the table^ were the brakes set in emer- 
gency ? 

A. 4iti., 5 in., 6 in., 7 in. piston travel. 

62 61 59I 58 J emergency pressure. 
8 in., 9 in., 10 in., 11 in. piston travel. 
57i 56i 55i 55 emergency pressure, 

Q, Why do the brakes set harder with the quick- 
action triple in emergency than in service ? 

A. Because in the emergency application the quick- 
action triples put air from both the auxiliary and train 
line into the brake cylinder. 

Q. Can /nil emergency pressure be obtained after 
having made a light train-line rediiction in service 
application ? 

Ac No. 



58 Air-Brakb Catechism. 

Q, Can any gain be made ? 

A. Yes, if the reduction has not been too great. By 
referring to the table we see that a thirteen-pound reduc- 
tion sets a 4-inch travel brake in full. If emergency were 
now used this brake would not set any harder, while we 
might gain a little on the long travel. With a given 
train-line reduction, we would gain most on the car with 
the long travel, but on neither would we get full emer- 
gency pressure. 

Q. Can a train be handled smoothly with uneven 
travel throughout the train ? 

A. Not as smoothly as when the travel is more uni- 
form. 

Q, What will be the effect with short travel at 
the head of the train and long at the rear ? 

A. Having more braking power at the head would 
cause the slack to run ahead, causing a jar. 

Q. What if the short travel were at the rear of 
the train ? 

A. The tendency would be for the slack to run back 
and break the train in two, especially if the train were 
on a knoll. 

Q, How else would the piston travel affect the 
smoothness of the braking? 

A. In releasing the brakes. 

Q, Suppose we had a train half of which had 4- 
inch travel and the other half g inch, which brakes 
would start releasing first if the engineer had made 
a ten-pound train-line reduction and then, wishing 
to release the brakes, increased the train-line press- 
ure? 

A. They should all start about the same time, but 



Piston Travel. 59 

the tendency is always for head brakes to start releasing 
first if the travel is about alike, as the air enters the 
train line from the main reservoir at the front of the 
train, and the pressure is naturally a little higher here 
^vhen recharging. 

Q. Is the same trzie after a thirteen-pound 
redtiction ? 
A. Yes. 
Q, After a twenty-two-pound reduction ? 

A. No ; the long travel brakes will start releasing 
first. 

Q, Why ? 

A. Referring to the table we see that the 4-inch 
travel was not applied any harder after a thirteen-pound 
reduction had been made ; but the 9-inch travel con- 
tinued applying harder until a twenty-two-pound reduc- 
tion of train-line pressure had been made. With the 
brakes full set we have fifty-seven pounds pressure in 
the auxiliary and cylinder of the 4-inch travel car and 
forty-seven and one-half on the long. Train-line press- 
ure has to overcome auxiliary pressure to force the 
triple pistons to release position, and it is easier to over- 
come forty-seven and one-half than fifty-seven pounds ; 
hence the triple piston on the long travel car will go to 
release position with less of an increase of train-line 
pressure than will the triple on the short travel car. 

Q, State the general rule in regard to this ques- 
tion, 

A. If reductions have not been continued after cars 
with the short piston travel have been full set, all brakes 
should start releasing about the same time ; but if the 
reductions of train-line pressure are continued after the 
short travel brakes are full set, an increase of train-line 
pressure will start the long travel brakes releasing first. 



6o Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q, If a long and a short travel brake are started 
releasing at the same time, which will get off first 

and why ? 

A. The short travel, because the piston has a shorter 
distance to go and there is a less volume of air to be 
gotten rid of through the exhaust port of the triple. 

Q, We have two cars with the same piston travel 
What is the trouble if both are started releasing at 
the same time and one gets off quicker than the 
other? 

A. The release spring in one cylinder is weaker or 
the cylinder corroded. 

Q. What harm would it do to take a pistons 
travel up to 2 inches ? 

A. The piston could not get by the leakage groove^ 
and the brake would not stay set. 

Q. What har^n would it do to let the travel out 
to I J inches ? 

A. The piston would strike the head, and we would 
have no brake on that car. 

Q, Does having very long piston travel i^i a 
tram require any more work of a pum.p in desce^id- 
ing grades ? 

A. Yes; the air has to be used more expansively, and 
the pump will have to supply more air in recharging. 

Q, If we try the piston travel on a car when 
standing, will we find it to be the same as when run- 
ning? 

A. No. 

Q. Why not ? 



Piston Travel. 6i 

A. For several reasons: the shoes pull down farther 
on the wheels when running ; the king bolts being loose 
allow the trucks to be pulled together ; spring in brake 
beams, loose boxes in jaws, loose brasses on journals, 
the give in old cars, and any lost motion that will throw 
slack into the brake rigging ; all these will cause the 
piston travel while running to be greater than that 
while standing. 

Q. If the piston travel is adjusted when a car is 
loadedy will it remain the same when the car is 
light? 

A. It will, if the brakes are hung from the sand 
plank, but most brakes are hung from the truck bolster 
or the sill of the car. When the car is loaded, the truck 
springs are compressed and the shoes set lower on the 
wheels. When the car is unloaded, the truck springs 
raise the bolster and car body, thus raising the shoes so 
that there is less clearance between the brake shoes and 
wheels. This shortens the piston travel, as the piston 
does not have to travel so far to bring the shoes up to 
the wheels 

Q. How could you tell the piston travel on a car 
if it had no air in it ? 

A. This can be told on freight cars where the hand 
brake and air brake move the push rod in the cylinder in 
the same direction when applying the brake. To tell 
the travel, shove the push rod into the cylinder until it 
bottoms. Make a mark on the push rod and set the 
hand brake. The distance the mark on the push rod 
has moved will be, approximately, the piston travel when 
using air. 

Q, How much variation is per^nissible? 

A. The smaller the amount of variation the better, 
b)ut in road service it is the aim to keep piston travel 
between 5 and 8 inches. 



62 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. Is there any device which will keep a constant 
piston travel on a car without any outside aid ? 
A. Yes, a slack adjuster. 

Q. What slack adjuster is in most general use ? 
A. The American slack adjuster. 

Q, Is this better than a hand adjustment ? 

A. Yes, because it does its work when the car is in 
motion, and true travel is had because all lost motion is 
brought out when the car is in motion. 

Q, What is the most satisfactory travel for 
general use f 

A. Between 6 and 7 inches. 

Q, Where would a moderately long travel be 
considered better than a short one f 

A. In a practically level country w^here, with short 
travel and a large number of air cars in a train, the 
train might be slowed up or stopped with a light train- 
line reduction, thus causing too frequent releases. 

Q, What harm would a too short travel do f 
A. The piston might not get by the leakage groove, 
and the shorter the travel the more danger of sliding the 
wheels on account of the greater braking power de- 
veloped. A too short travel does not give sufficient 
shoe clearance, and causes a train to pull hard if the 
brake shoes drag. 

Q. On 7nost passenger cars piston travel can be 
taken up by winding up the hand brake a little^ as 
the two brakes work in opposition to each other. 
Is this a good practice f 

A. No ; it is the act of a lazy workman, and is 
dangerous. 



Piston Travel. 63 

Q. How is it dangerous ? 

A. If the brake is set quickly, it is likely to snap 
the brake chain, and if a passenger had hold of a hand 
brake wheel when the brake was applied, if the dog 
were not caught, the wheel flying round might break 
his hand or arm. 

Q. If the hand brake on a car works with the 
air {Fig. 90), and the air brake zvas applied^ zuhat 
would result if the hand brake were then applied? 

A. The braking power developed would be too 
much for the safety of the w^heels, rods, etc., since the 
resultant braking power is equal to the sum of the 
power of both brakes. 

Q. If the air brake were then released what dif- 
ficulty would be experienced f 

A. Since the hand brake retains all of the power of 
both brakes it would be a very difficult matter for the 
brakeman to release the brake. 

Q, With this kind of a brake what would result 
ij the hand brake were first applied and then the air? 

A. If the air brake were more powerful than the 
hand brake, slack would be thrown into the hand brake 
chain, and the gain in power would be the excess power 
of the air over that of the hand brake. If the air power 
were not as strong as that of the hand no effect would 
be produced since the pull in the hand brake rod would 
be diminished an amount equal to the power of the air. 

Q. If the hand and air worked opposite^ that is^ 
they tended to move the push rod in opposite direc- 
tions to apply the brake {see Fig. p/), zvhat effect 
would be produced if the air brake was applied and 
then the hand brake f 



64 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

A. The air brake fully applied is usually stronger 
than the hand brake, hence the pull on the hand brake 
rod due to the air pressure would be greater than could 
be exerted by the brakeman, and the brake wheel could 
not be turned after the slack in the brake chain had 
been taken up. Under these conditions no braking 
power could be gained by using the hand brake. 

O, If the ha7id brake were fii^st applied and then 
the air what would be tlie result f 

A. Applying the hand brake took up all the slack 
in the brake rigging and forced the push rod and piston 
in as far as they could go. When air from the auxiliary 
passed through the triple valve to the brake cylinder it 
would pass through the leakage groove to the atmos- 
phere and simply the power of the hand brake would 
remain. The clearance in the cylinder being very 
small would result in a very high pressure when the air 
first entered, thus tending to strain the rods and brake- 
chain, but the air would quickly escape as explained. 

Q, Which is the better brake from the stand- 
point of danger to the brakemen? 

A. The one in which both work together. If, 
where the brakes work opposite, a man is using the 
hand brake at the same time the engineer uses the air, 
or an air hose bursts, the air power will turn the brake- 
wheel in the opposite direction tending to throw the 
brakeman from the train. 

Q. If the cars of a train are equipped with air 
and hand brakes working together^ and the train 
was being controlled by air^ what could be done if 
tlie engi^ieer lost control of the train f 

A. The engineer could call for brakes and without 
releasing the air, the crew could add the power of the 
hand brakes to that of the air. 



Piston Travel. 65 

Q. What would have to be ctone 171 a case like 
ihis if the hand and air brakes worked opposite ■ 

A. After calling for brakes it would be necessary for 
the engineer to make a release before the crew could 
apply the hand brakes, since if this were not done and 
the hand brakes were applied, any leakage of brake 
cylinder pressure would allow the piston to move in, 
thus throwing slack into the brake rigging and releas- 
ing the hand brake. 

Q, Hoiu abont leaving cars on a grade if the 
air brake is applied? 

h.. If the hand and air work together, the hand 
brake can be applied without first releasing the air and 
it will remain set after the air leaks off. If the brakes 
work opposite, it is necessary to bleed the car before 
applying the hand brake ; if this is not done, the re- 
lease of the air brake by leakage will also release the 
hand brake and the car will run away. 

To be on the safe side it is best, as a general rule, to 
always release the air on one car at a time and apply 
the hand brake, when leaving a car or train on a grade ; 
hut this would not be necessary, from the standpoint of 
.safety, if all brakes worked together. 

Q, Are most brakes designed to work together 
or opposite f 

A. A large majority of freight car brakes are de- 
signed to work together, while in passenger service the 
opposite is true ; but the importance of this question 
will result eventually in practically all brakes being de- 
signed to work together. 



THE AMERICAN BRAKE SLACK ADJUSTER 
AND PISTON TRAVEL REGULATOR. 

Q. Name the differejit pa7ds of the American 
Brake Slack Adjuster shown in Fig. ij ? 

A. II is the cylinder; 19, the packing leather held 
in position by the expander ring and follower; 22, the 
pawl; 23, the pawl spring; 21, the piston spring; 24^ 
the cylinder head and casing ; and 27, the ratchet nut. 

Q. Na7ne the parts shown in Fig, 12 f 

A. I is the ratchet nut ; 2, the cylinder ; 3, the 
cylinder head and casing ; 4, the adjuster screw ; a^ the 
port which connects pipe b with the inside of the 
cylinder; and b^ a pipe connection from the slack ad- 
juster cylinder with port a of the main cylinder. 

Q, What is the object of the lug a {Fig* 13)? 

A. As illustrated in Fig. 13, its object is to lift the 
pawl out of the ratchet nut (27) w^hen the adjuster piston 
is in release position. In the position shown the ratchet 
nut can be turned by hand to take up or let out slack 
when necessary, as when applying new brake shoes. 

Q. Explain the operation of the adjuster? 

A, In Fig. 13 it is shown in the normal or release 
position. If there is sufficient slack in the brake rig- 
ging, so that the piston in the large cylinder (Fig. 12) 
uncovers port a when the brake is applied, cylinder 
pressure will pass through port a^ pipe b^ and into 
cylinder 11 (Fig. 13). The piston will be forced out, 



SI.ACK Adjuster, 



67 




68 Air-Brake Catechism. 

compressing piston spring 21. The movement of the 
piston disengages pawl 22 from lug a^ and pawl spring 
23 causes the pawl 22 to engage in the teeth of the 
rachet nut. 

When the brake is released and the piston in the 
brake cylinder is forced to release position by the re- 
lease spring, port a is connected with the non-pressure 
end of the cylinder, hence the air in the slack adjuster 
cylinder passes through pipe b (Fig. 12), port a, and out 
to the atmosphere through the non-pressure head. 

When the air is released from the slack adjuster 
cylinder the piston spring 21 forces the piston back and 
it in turn, through the pawl, turns the rachet nut which 
draws the screw away from the cylinder. Lever 5 
(Fig. 12) is fastened to a crosshead attached to the ad- 
juster screw, hence the lever is moved correspondingly, 
the effect of which is to draw all the brake shoes nearer 
to the wheels. 

Q, How does this shorten the pist07i travel? 

A. The shoes being nearer the wheels it will require 
a less movement of the piston to bring the shoes in con- 
tact with the wheels. 

Q. How ma7iy teeth does the pawl skip at each 
movement of the adjuster piston throiighoiit its 
stroke^ and what movement of the crosshead attached 
to lever ^ if^S* ^^) '^^^^li? 

A. The pawl usually skips one tooth, engaging the 
second of the adjuster nut each time. One operation of 
the adjuster moves the crosshead, connected to the lever, 
-jj of an inch. 

Q. If the adjuster nut i {Fig* 12) is Tnoved one 
tui^n^ how far will the crosshead attached to the lever 
5 be moved ? 

A. One-quarter of an inch. 



Slack Adjuster. 69 

Q What is the object in having the crosshead 
7nove but 1/^2 of an inch for each operation of the 
adjuster f 

A. When a car is in motion false travel is often 
produced owing to unevenness of the track and similar 
causes ; if the adjuster should take up all this extra 
slack the piston travel would frequently be found too 
short. 

Q. What is the controlling factor in the amonnt 
of piston travel to be permitted f 

A. The location of port a in the brake cylinder 
(Fig. 12). It is usually located to obtain an eight-inch 
'' running " travel. 

Q, If the brake is applied when a car is at rest 
and the piston travel were but six or six and one- 
half inches^ would you decide that the adjuster was 
not working properly f 

A. No. 

Q. Explain the last answer f 

A. The slack adjuster adjusts the '' running'' travel 
at eight inches, and as the ^^ running " is always greater 
than the '' standing" travel, we would expect to find 
the piston travel shorter when the car was at rest. 

Q. Would the '^ standing ^^ travel be the same on 
all cars f 

A. No ; this depends upon the total leverage. 

Q, Woutd the " running '^ travel be the same on 
all cars f 
A. Yes. 

Q, To apply new shoes it is necessary to increase 
the shoe cleara^ice ; how is this done f 

A. By turning the ratchet nut i (Fig. 12) to the left. 



70 



Air-Brakk Catechism. 




Slack Adjuster. 71 

Q. After the new shoes are applied how may the 
pist07i travel be sJiortened ? 

A. By turning the adjuster nut to the right. 

Q, How should we proceed to apply a slack ad- 
juster to a carf 

A. Drill port a so that brake cylinder pressure can 
reach pipe b after the cylinder piston has travelled eight 
inches and erect the parts and piping as shown in Fig. 
12, pipe b to be copper. The upright part of port a (Fig. 
14) is drilled with a ^-inch drill and the upper portion 
plugged ; the part of the port into which pipe b con- 
nects is drilled and tapped for ^-inch pipe. After 
erecting, test joints with soap suds. Next put on a new 
set of brake shoes and adjust the piston travel by means 
of the dead levers, from six to six and one-half inches. 

The length of the different rods should be such that 
the dead and live levers will have an inclination so 
that when the shoes are worn out they will have a cor- 
responding inclination in the opposite direction. 

Q, What IS the standard length between centers 
of holes in the rod connecting the cylinder levers 
when using the slack adjuster f 

A. 42 inches. 

Q, What is invariably the cause of the piston 
travel being too short on a car equipped with an 
American Slack Adjuster? 

A. Either some of the slack has been taken up by 
the hand brake, or the position of the dead levers has 
been changed. 

Q, What Tnay occasion the piston travel to be- 
come too long ? 

A. Pipe b may be obstructed, leaks may exist in 
pipe ^, or the slack adjuster cylinder, or the packing 



72 



Air-Brakk Catkchism, 



leather. The car may have been running some time 
with the slack partly taken up on the hand brake, a 
subsequent entire release of which would introduce an 
amount of slack that it would require some time for the 
adjuster to take up. 

Q, Is there ever a time zvhen^ zvith the brake 
released^ the rachet nut can not be turnedf 

A. Yes ; when the crosshead is at the end of its 
stroke. 

Q, Why can the rachet nut not be turned under 
these conditio7is ? 

A. With the rachet nut at the end of its stroke, and 



PORT TO BE 8 H FROM PRESSURE HEAD 




Fig. 14. — Showing Proper Method of Drii,i,ing Brake 
Cylinders when used with the American Automatic 
Brake Slack Adjuster. 



the piston travelling beyond the limit, air will operate 
the slack adjuster piston, causing the pawd to engage a 
tooth of the ratchet nut, in w^hich position it will remain. 



Slack Adjuster. 73 

since, the crossliead being at the end of its stroke, the 
adjnster screw can not be tnrned. 

Q, Hoiu can the pawl be disengaged? 

A. The adjnster is so designed that the crosshead,. 
when at the end of its stroke, is drawn against a set 
screw next to the cylinder casing 3 (Fig. 12), bnt not 
shown in the cnt. Removing this set screw permits of 
a fnrther movement of the crosshead and the usual 
operation takes place, allowing the pawl to be disen- 
gaged. The adjnster nut may then be tnrned by hand, 
thus moving the crosshead nearer the large cylinder for 
the purpose of giving sufficient slack to permit of the 
application of new brake shoes. The set screw should 
always be replaced after the pawl has been liberated and 
fhe crosshead moved back. 

Q, What might happen if the pawl were caught 
as just described and^ not understanding the func- 
tion of the set screw ^ a large wrench were used to 
turn the ratchet 7iutf 

A. Some of the teeth might be broken off of the 
ratchet nut. 

Q. How often should the slack adjuster cylinder 
be cleaned and lubricated? 
A. About once in six months. 



THE WESTINGHOUSE RETAINING VALVE. 

Q. With what equipments is the retaining valve 
used? 

A. Throughout the country on freight cars, and on 
engines, tenders, and passenger cars in mountainous 
country. 

Q, Why do they not use it on passenger cars in 
hilly cou7itry f 

A. It is not necessary, as the higher braking power 
used in passenger service is sufficient to run moderate 
hills with safety. 

Q. Where is it usually located? 

A. Usually at the end, close to the brake standard 
on freight cars, and at the end about on the level of the 
edge of the hood on passenger cars. 

Q. Where is it located on cars having vesti- 
bules f 

A. On the outside of the vestibule, in which case a 
special valve is used, the handle of which extends within 
the vestibule (see Fig. 17). 

Q, To what IS it co7inected? 

A. To the exhaust port of the triple by means of 
a ^-inch or ^-inch pipe. 

Q. What is its use f 

A. To retain fifteen pounds pressure in the brake 
cylinder to steady the train, and keep its speed from in- 



The Westinghouse Retaining Vai,ve. 75 

creasing too rapidly while the engineer is recharging the 
auxiliaries. 

Q. How does the handle of the valve stand when 
not in use ? 

A. Straight down. 

Q, How does it stand when in use ? 

A. In the position shown in the cut (Fig. 15). 




TO EXHAUST PORT OF 
TRIPLE VALVE 



Fig. 15.— Pressure Retaining Vai,ve. 

Q. If the brake is not applied, can it be set by 
turning up the retainer handle ? 

A. No; the retainer can be used only to hold air in 
the brake cylinder that has already been put there. 

Q, Explain the passage of the air through the 
retainer when not in use. 

A. With the retainer handle pointing down, as 
when not in use, any air coming from the cylinder 



76 Air-Brake Catechism. 

would pass through ports a, 6, and out to the atmosphere 
through port e. 

Q, Explain the passage of air through the 
retainer whe7i in tise, as shown by the cut. 

A. When the engineer increases his train-line 
pressure the triple assumes release position, and the 
air passing from the brake cylinder has to pass out to 
the atmosphere through the retaining valve. With the 
retainer handle turned up, the air passes through port h 
until it strikes the weighted valve 20. Any pressure 
over fifteen pounds forces this valve from its seat and 
passes through the restricted port opening c to the 
atmosphere. When the pressure in the cylinder is 
reduced to fifteen pounds, it is held back by the valve 
20. 

Q, What is the size of the small end of port c f 

A. One-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. 

Q. Why is it made so small? 

A. To keep the brake cylinder pressure from 
escaping to the atmosphere too rapidly after valve 20 is 
lifted. 

Q, How long will it take the cylinder pressure 
to reduce from fifty down to fifteen pounds through 
this retainer ? 

A. About twenty or twenty-five seconds, during 
which time the auxiliaries with an average length of 
train have become pretty well charged. 

Q. Have all retainers this restricted port c ? 

A. No ; in some old retainers there are two ports of 
:^-inch diameter each. 

Q, Will a retainer hold more pressure with cc 
long or a short piston travel on a car ? 



The Westinghousk Retaining Valve. 77 

A. It holds the same pressure regardless of the 
travel. The volume held is greater on the long travel 
car. 

Q, How do we test retainers ? 

A. Have the engineer apply the brakes, and turn up 
the retainer handles. Then signal the engineer to 
release, and wait about half a minute, after which walk 
along and turn down the handles. If a blow accom- 
panies the turning down of the handles, the retainer is 
working properly, otherwise the pressure has leaked 
away. 

Q, What troubles would 7nake a retainer 
inoperative ? 

A. A leak in the plug valve operated by the 
retainer handle ; weight 20 (Fig.15) being gone or dirt on 
its seat ; a split pipe leading from the triple exhaust to the 
retainer, or a leak in the packing leather in the brake 
cylinder which would allow the air to escape to the 
atmosphere. 

Q, What could be the trouble with the retainer 
zfy after the brake was applied and the retainer put 
in use, no air escaped from it when the engineer 
increased the train-line pressure ? 

A. Port c might be blocked. 

Q. If we wish to use a retainer in descending a 
grade, should the handle be turned up before or 
after the brakes are applied? 

A. It makes no dijBference, if every thing is in proper 
condition. 

Q. Explain a case where it would not be proper 
to turn up the retainer handle until just before we 
-wish to use it. 



78 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A. If the rubber-seated or the slide valve in the 
triple leaked, and we turned up the retainer handle, air 
would accumulate to a pressure of fifteen pounds in the 
cylinder if the leakage groove were closed, and set the 
brake on this car. If the train were just pulling over a 
summit, the brake being on might stall the train. 

Q, Give a rule to produce best results in using 
the retainer, 

A. In testing retainers while standing, turn up the 
handles at your convenience before or after the brakes 
are applied ; but when using them on the road, turn 
them up after the brakes are applied or a short time 
before wishing to use them. 

Q, Is a retainer ever tcsed except to steady a 
train when recharging? 

A. Yes ; when brakes have been applied too hard, 
a few are sometimes used to keep the slack bunched 
after releasing, when drifting along preparatory to mak- 
ing a stop. 

Q. Set a brake with the full service applicatio7i, 
then turn tip the retainer handle, release and 
recharge. After charging the auxiliary in full 
again, make a full service redtiction. Will the 
brake set any harder one time than another ? 

A. Yes, it will set harder the second time. 

Q, Why ? 

A. When we started to apply the brakes the first 
time, we had seventy pounds auxiliary pressure and 
nothing in the brake cylinder. The second time we 
had seventy in the auxiliary and fifteen pounds in the 
brake cylinder. By comparison we see that we had 
more air the second time with which to do our braking, 
and the pressures will therefore equalize higher. 



The Westinghouse Retaining Valve. 79 

Q, Would we gam more the second time over 
that of the first with a long or a short piston 
travel? 

A. With the long, because the retaining valve on the 
long travel car retains the same number of pounds in 
the cylinder as on the short one, but a larger volume ; 
having a greater volume the pressures equalize corres- 
pondingly higher. 

Q. Do we gain the whole fifteen pottnds more 
the second time over what is obtained the first ? 

A. No ; we gain from about three to six pounds 
pressure, according to the piston travel. 

Q, About how much pressure do we get in the 
brake cylinder for a five-pound train-line reduction ? 

A. It varies from seven to eleven pounds with aver- 
age piston travel. It may be more or less, but this 
would be a fair average. 

Q, After getting the use of the fifteen potcnds 
that the retainer holdsy how mtich pressure zuould 
we then get in the cylinder for a five-pottnd train- 
line reduction with an average piston travel? 

A. Between thirty and forty pounds. 

Q. Where a twenty-pound reduction will set a 
brake in full without the aid of the retainer y how 
much reduction is necessary with the fifteen pounds 
it holds to aid? 

A. From twelve to fifteen pounds with fair travel. 

Q. Name another gain after obtaining the use 
of the retainer, 

A. If we have to apply the brakes in full, it does not 
take so long to recharge^ as the auxiliary and brake- 



So 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



cylinder pressures equalize higher with the retainer to 
aid. 

Q, How could we tell if it was safe to turn up a 
retainer handle before reaching the top of a hill and 
not have the brakes drag? 

A. Put the hand over the exhaust port and hold it 
there a few seconds to see if any air is issuing ; if not, it 
is safe to turn up the handle. 

Table. 



(I) 



(2) 



(3) 



(4) 



(5) 



(6) 



(7) 



Piston Emer- Emergency 5 Lbs.Serv.-^^^'^^^^- Full FullServ. 
travel gency with Ret. Reduction -5^ ^^" Service with Ret. 



Inches Lbs. 



4 
5 

6 

7 
8 

9 

10 

II 



63 
61 

59J 

55i 
55 



Lbs. 

65 

63 

63 
62 

62 

6ii 

61 

60 



Lbs. 
23 

i3i 

iij 

10 

8 

+ 
+ 



Lbs. 
59 

55 
51 
43 
38 
35 
32 
30 



Lbs. 

57i 
55i 
53 
52 

5oi 
48 

46 
45 



Lbs. 
61 

59 
58 
57 
56 
55 
54 
53 



The above figures were obtained by taking an average of four tests 
for each condition. 

Each test was made wuth a train-line and auxiliary pressure of sev- 
enty pounds. 

The first column represents the piston travel. 

The second column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained 
in emergency. 

The third column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained in 
emergency after the retainer has been used ; that is, there was al- 
ready a pressure of fifteen pounds in the brake cylinder held by the 
retainer when the emergency was used. 



The Westinghouse Retaining Valve. 8i 

The fourth column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained 
\\dth a five-pound service reduction. 

The fifth column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained 
A\nth a five-pound service reduction after once obtaining the use of 
the air held in the cylinder by the use of the retainer. 

The sixth column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained 
^ith a full service reduction. 

The seventh column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained 
Avith a full service reduction after getting the use of the retainer. 

H- simply means that the gauge used registered no pressure less 
than five pounds. With an ii-inch travel the air is expanded into so 
large a space that a very small pressure is obtained. 

The table should be read from the left to the right. 

Q, What are the 7^etaimng valves shown in Figs. 
i6^ //, i8 and jgf 

A. Figs. 1 6 and 17 represent valves designed to op- 
erate with 12, 14 and i6-incli cylinders. Thongli 
slightly different in structure, the operation is practi- 
cally the same as the one already described. 

Q. Why is it necessary to have two sets of re- 
tai7iing valves for use with 6^ 8^ and 10; and 12^ 
y^, and 16-inch cylinders? 

A. It is essential in releasing brakes that the pres- 
sure in all cylinders be reduced about alike. The ports 
in the valves for use with 12, 14, and 16-inch cylinders 
are correspondingly larger than those in the valves for 
use with the smaller cylinders. 

Q, What is the purpose of the extension handle 
{Fig. 17)? 

A. This valve is for use on vestibule cars. The 
body of the valve is located outside the vestibule, but 
the handle extends within. 

Q. What IS the common name for this valve ? 
A. The '^ Pullman Retaining Valve.'' 

Q What is the difference between this valve and 



83 



Air-Brake Catechism, 




RETAINING POSITION 



Fig. 1 6. — Retaining Valve 
used with 12, 14 and 16- 
INCH Brake Cylinders. 




Fig. 17. — Pullman Retain- 
ing Valve, used on Ves- 
tibule Cars. 




Fig. 18. — Standard Retain- 
ing Valve used with 6, 
8 AND lo-iNCH Brake Cyl- 
inders. 




Fig. 19. — Driver-brake Re- 
taining Valve. 



The Wkstixghouse Retaining Valve. S3 

the corresponding one for use on cars not equipped 
with vestibnles? 

A. The keys are set at right angles to each other in 
the bodies of the two valves and, as already explained, 
the '^ Pullman " valve has an extension handle. 

Q, Is the operation of the two and the results 
accomplished tlie san.e i 

A. Yes. 

Q. How 7na7iy kinds of retaining valves are 
furnished by tJie IVestinghoicse Company^ and what 
is their use f 

A. Five. The one shown in Fig. 18 is for use with 6, 
8, and loinch cylinders on non-vestibule cars ; practically 
the same valve, but with an extension handle and key at 
right angles, is used on vestibule cars. Figs. 16 and 17 
represent the corresponding valves for use with 12, 14, 
and 16-inch cylinders. Fig. 19 is a cut of the Driver- 
Brake Retaining Valve. 

Q, How does the Driver-Brake Retaini^zg Valve 
operate ? 

A. In the same general way as the other, except that, 
if so desired, it may be placed on lap, as indicated, in 
which position no air can escape from the brake-c}'linder. 
When the handle points straight up the usual 15 pounds 
is retained, when the triple piston is forced to release 
position. 

Q, For luhat special use was the Driver-Brake 
Retaining Valve designed? 

A. For use on freight engines and those hauling 
long passenger or excursion trains. It furnishes a 
means, within the control of the engineer, by which the 
slack of a train may be kept bunched, if desired, when 
drifting up to a water crane, releasing brakes at slow 
speeds, and under similar conditions. 



MAIN RESERVOIR. 

Q. Where does the air go when it leaves the 
pump ? 

A. To the main reservoir. 

Q Where does Tnai^i reservoir pressure begin 
and where end? 

A. It begins where the air leaves the pump and ends 
at the engineer's valve. 

Q, What is the object of the main reservoir ? 

A. Its object is to act as a storehouse in which to 
keep a reserve pressure to throw into the train line to 
release brakes and recharge auxiliaries. It also acts to 
collect most of the dirt, oil, and moisture that leaves the 
pump. 

Q, How much main reservoir pressure is usual- 
ly carried? 

A. Usually ninety pounds, although more is used in 
mountainous countr)^,when using the High-Speed Brake, 
or the High-Pressure Control, or the Duplex Method of 
Main Reservoir Regulation. 

Q, What size main reservoir is considered 
proper? 

A. One whose capacity is not less than 40,000 cubic 
inches for freight, and 20,000 or more for passenger en- 
gine. 

Q. How large should a^iy main reservoir be ? 
A. In releasing brakes in any service the main 
reservoir must be large enough so that, when the brakes 



Main Reservoir. 85 

are applied and we wish to release them, the main 
reservoir pressure will equalize with that in the train 
line, when connected with it, at a sufficiently high 
pressure to insure the prompt and certain release of the 
brakes. 

Q, Why is a larger main reservoir necessary in 
freight than in passenger service ? 

A. Because there are a greater number of auxiliaries 
to charge in freight service and a longer train line to 
supply. 

Q, When is a large main reservoir with full 
pressure most essential? 

A. After an emergency application, and especially 
after a break in two. 

Q, What resnlts are likely to follow the tcse of 
S7nallmain reservoirs on engines ptdlinglong trains ? 

A. A pump is likely to heat, brakes are likely to 
stick, and we will have a hard handling rotary. 

Q, Why is a pump more likely to heat with a 
small main reservoir ? 

A. Because the smaller the main reservoir, the high- 
er the pressure has to be carried, and the higher the 
pressure the more is heat generated in compressing the 
air ; therefore the pump is more likely to heat and burn 
out the packing. 

A second reason is that with a small reservoir, when 
releasing brakes, the pump has to work faster to charge 
the auxiliaries before the speed of the train increases too 
much. The pump working very fast does not have 
time to take in a full cylinder of air each stroke. The 
pump then has to make more strokes to compress the 
same amount of air, than it would were it working more 
slowly. 



86 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q, State the gains made by using a large main 
reservoir. 

A. Pressure in the main reservoir and train line will 
equalize higher when releasing, auxiliaries will be 
charged more quickly, the pump is not so likely to heat, 
and, not working so rapidly or against so high a pressure, 
will not wear out so fast, and the brakes are not so likely 
to stick. 

Q. What should be the locatio7i of a main reser- 
voir ? 

A. If possible, at the lowest point in the air-brake 
system. 

Q. Why ? 

A. To have all the dirt and oil possible drained into 
it and drawn off through the bleed cock. 

Q, Where is the main reservoir tistially located? 
A. Between the frames back of the cylinder saddle. 

Q, Should it be located there ? 

A. Yes, when it is possible to place there a main 
reserv^oir of the regulation size ; but the size must not 
be sacrificed for the position. 

Q. Where else is it sometimes located? 

A. Under the foot-boards of the cab and sometimes 
on the tank» 

Q, Is it right to locate it on the tank ? 

A. Yes, if the requisite volume can be obtained in 
no other way ; otherwise, no. 

Q, Why is it not a desirable position ? 

A, Oil and dirt will not drain into it as they should, 
and when it is so located, two lines of hose have to run 
between the tank and engine, one to carry the air from 
the pump to the main reservoir, and the other to bring 



Main Reservoir. 87 

the pressure from the reservoir to the engineer's valve. 
These hose get full of oil and dirt, decay, burst, and in 
the end prove very expensive. 

Q, Hozu often should tJie main reservoir be 
drained? 

A. At the end of each trip. 

Q. Where does this water found in the 7nain 
reservoir come from ? 

A. Most of it is drawn from the atmosphere, and 
given off as the air cools. 

Q, Does any of the condensed stea7n from the 
steam end of the pump leak by the piston rod and 
then pass into the main reservoir with the com- 
pressed air ? 

A. A trifle ; but this is an inappreciable amount 
compared with what comes from the atmosphere, especi- 
ally on rainy days. 

The following was taken from the '96 Proceedings of 
the Air Brake Association. There were four reservoirs, 
each with a capacity of 12,200 cubic inches, and they 
could all be used together or cut out at will. The test 
was made on a twenty- five car train, and shows the ad- 
vantage of having a large volume of air in the main 
reservoir to equalize with that in the train line. 



[STumber 


of 


Initial reservoir 


Initial pressure 


Pressure 


reservoirs 


pressure 


in train pipe 


equalized at 


cut in, 




in pounds. 


in pounds. 


in pounds. 


4 




100 





50 


2 




100 





35 


4 




100 


50 


72 


4 




90 


50 


67 


2 




IIO 


50 


68 


2 




100 


50 


63 


a 




90 


50 


61 



88 



Air-Brake: Catechism. 



Q. What IS generally conceded to be the best 
practice concer7ii7ig 7nain reservoirs ? 

A. To use two main reservoirs, preferably long and 
of small diameter, and a cooling pipe of approximately 
30 feet between the pnmp and first reservoir, and also 
between the first and second reservoirs. 

Q, Why is this done ? 

A. Tests have shown that, with these conditions ex- 
isting, air cools properly before passing the brake valve 
and no water is found in the train-line, thus doing 
away wdth the chance of frozen train pipes. 

Main Reservoir Sizes. 



aches, outside. 


Capacity. 


223^ X34 


about 11,200 


cubic inches 


24>^X34 


'^ 14,000 


(( (( 


26>^ X 34 


'' i5)8oo 


u c; 


20^ X 41 


" 12,200 


a (( 


22 >^ X 41 


" 14,000 


U (( 


24^ X 41 


'' 17,400 


(C C4 


26>^ X 41 


'' 20,000 


(( c; 



Note. — ]\Iain reserv^oir capacity for passenger engines 
should not be less than 20,000, and for freight engines 
not less than 40,000 cubic inches. With a large capacity 
reser\^oir the pump may be run slow^er, it is less likely 
to heat, the brakes can be released more promptly, a 
much quicker recharge of the auxiliaries is possible, and 
so much moisture will not reach the train line. When 
air, after reaching the main reservoir, is allowed to cool 
to its initial temperature before being used no moisture 
is ever found in the train line. 



WESTINGHOUSE ENGINEER'S BRAKE 

VALVES. 

Q, What was the first form of valve tised ? 

A. That which was known as the old three-way 
cock. 

Q, With what eqtiipment was this used ? 

A. With the straight air, with the plain automatic, 
and for a time, by a good many roads, with the quick- 
action brake. 

Q. What objection was there to it ? 

A. It was not sufificiently sensitive, and there was 
great danger of throwing the brakes into emergency. 

Q. Why ? 

A. Because reductions of train-line pressure were 
made by instinct or sense of sound. An engineer hav- 
ing a short train to-day and a long one to-morrow could 
scarcely avoid doing poor braking, as his valve was noth- 
ing much more than a plug valve. A reduction that 
was a trifle too heavy would throw the triples into quick 
action, and on a long train the reduction could not be 
made too slow, or the air would blow through the leak- 
age grooves in the brake cylinders. If the escape of air 
from the train line were suddenly checked, the air from 
the rear rushing ahead had a tendency to kick oflF some 
of the head brakes. 

Q, In changing the valve what zuas the object ? 
A. To obtain a valve that would mechanically and 



90 Air-Brake Catechism. 

gradually make the desired rednction of train-line press- 
tire regardless of the length of the train. 

Q, Was this done im^nediately f 
A. No ; several forms of valves were made before 
those now in use. 

Q, What are the ones now in nse ? 

A. The D 8, D 5, E 6, F 6, and the G 6 ; the D 5, 
E 6, F 6, and G 6, aside from the feed valve, are the 
same, the different letters simply refer to different cata- 
logues issued by the Westinghouse Company. 

Q, Which is the one 7nost in use and the one 
sent ont with all 7noder7i equipment f 
A. The G 6 valve. 

Q, What is the dijference between the D ^^ E 6^ 
F 6^ and G 6 Brake Valves f 

A. The first three are all alike and differ from the 
G 6 in the Feed Valve or Train-line Governor only. 
The G 6 has what is known as the Slide-Valve Feed 
Valve, as shown in Figs. 24 and 25. 

Q, What should be the location of an e7igineer^s 
valve ? 

A. Within easy reach of the engineer and far enough 
from the boiler that the heat will not dry out and crack 
the gaskets. 



G 6 FAXxIXEER'S BRAKE VALVE. 

0. Explain the dijfcrent parts of the engineer^ 
brake valve, 

A. A', Y^ T, ]\\ and R are explained by referring to 
Figs. 21, 2 2 and 23, Plate VI. 

31 and 32 are known respectively as npper and lower 
bodv orasket. 

14 is the rotary valve. 

13 a gasket to keep main reservoir pressure from leak- 
ing to the atmosphere. 

The space above piston 18 is known as cavity D ; 
this cavity is connected with the little drum by the 
pipe 21. 

18 is the equalizing piston, 22 the train-line exhaust. 

3 and 4 are known as the upper and lower valve 
body. 

There is a tee in pipe 26 just after it leaves the valve, 
one branch of which ofoes to the red hand on the orauo^-e 
and the other to the pump governor. 

The other parts need no naming. 

Q, Of luJiat use is the e7igineer'^s valve ? 
A. To give the engineer complete control of the flow 
of air. 

0. How many positions are there for the en- 
gineer^s valve ? 
A. Five. 

Q, N'anie them. 



92 x\ir-Brakk Cat:e:chism. 

A. Full release, running, lap, service, and emergency 
positions. 

Q. Describe the use of the different positions. 

A. Full release is that used for releasing brakes. 

Running position is the one used when running on 
the road and when the brakes are inoperative. 

Lap position is that which blanks all ports in the 
valve. 

Service is the position used when the brakes are to be 
applied gradually. 

Emergency is the position used when the brakes are 
to be applied suddenly. 

Q. What connections do we have zuith the valve 
171 f nil release ? 

•A. A direct connection between the main reservoir 
and train-line through a large port and between the 
main reservoir and cavity D^ or the little drum, through 
two small ports. 

Q Explam the flow of air front the main 
reservoir through the engineer^ valve in this 
position, 

A. In this position the main reservoir pressure enters 
the valve at X^ passes through port A^ port a of the ro- 
tary 14, port b of the rotary seat 3 (Figs. 20, 21 and 23), up 
into cavity c of the rotary and through port / into the 
train-line at K As the air passes through cavity c of 
the rotary on its way to the train-line, it is free to pass 
through port g (Fig. 21) into cavity D, In this posi- 
tion, porty of the rotary (Fig. 26) is over port e in the 
rotary seat (Fig. 21) also leading to the little drum, or 
cavity D. 

Q Can main reservoir pressure reach the top 
of the rotary i^ at all times f 
A. Yes. 



G 6 Engineer's Brake Valve 



93 



Q. What is the valve show7i in Fig, 20 ? 

A. It is the top portion of the old D 8 Brake Valve, 
a cut of which is inserted to convey a better idea of the 
flow of air through the brake valve in release position. 

Q, Does the passage of air through the D 8 




Pig. 20. — Showing Flow of Air through Brake Valve 
WHEN in Full Release Position. 



correspond to that of the G 6 Brake Valve in release 
position f 

A. Although the valves are somewhat different in 
construction, the flow of air in release j^osition is practi- 
callv the same in both brake valves. 



g^ Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. Hozu miich main reservoir pressure is itsttal- 
ly carried except in very motintainoits cozcntry ? 
A. Ninety pounds. 

Q, How mttch press^ire would we get on the 
main reservoir, the train line and the little drum, 
were the handle of the engineer s valve to be left in 
full release position until the p2cnip stopped ? 

A. Ninety pounds in each, as there is a direct con- 
nection between the three. 

Q, What is the small blozu zue hear if the en- 
gineer s valve is allowed to remain in f nil release ? 

A. It is the escape of main reservoir pressure through 
the warning port of the rotary into the emergency ex- 
haust (Fig. 23) and out to the atmosphere. 

Q, What is this port and its purpose ? 

A. It is a port, one end of which is about as large as 
a pin. When the engineer hears this blow it means to 
him that he must be careful or he will get ninety pounds 
pressure on the train line if he leaves the handle of his 
valve in full release position too long. 

Q, Hozu miich press2ire is usually carried on the 
train line and little drum in country not moun- 
tainotts ? 

A. Seventy pounds. 

Q. How does the engineer prevent a ni^iety- 
pound pressure getting on the trai7i line and little 
drum ? 

A. By moving the valve to the second or running 
position. 

Q, Why do we get only seventy pounds presstcre 
on the train line with the valve in running position ? 



G 6 Engineer's Brake Valve. 95 

A. Because in this position all air passing into the 
train-line from the main reservoir has to pass through 
the feed valve (Fig. 22), and this is adjusted to close as 
soon as there is a seventy-pound pressure on the train- 
line. 

Q, In rtmnmg position we have the position of 
the rotcuy as shoiun in Fig, 22. Explain the pas- 
sage of air in this position. 

A. The main reservoir pressure passes through the 
ports j\ f and f (Figs. 22 and 26) into the feed valve, 
or train-line governor as it is more commonly called ; 
thence through port i (Fig. 23) into port /(Figs. 21 and 
23) and out into the train-line at F. As the pressure 
passes through port / into the train-line it is also free to 
pass up into cavity c of the rotary, which is still over 
port /, as seen in Fig. 22. Port^ is still exposed under 
cavity ^, and at the same time the air passes through 
the train-line governor into the train-line, it also passes 
into cavity c of the rotary, port g of the rotary seat 
(Fig. 22) and into cavity Z?, or the little drum. 

Q, The train-line governor closes when there are 
seventy pounds on the trai^i line with the valve in 
running position, Hoiu mnch pressure do we get 
in the main reservoir with the valve in this positio7i f 

A. Ninety pounds. 

Q. What stops the pump zuhen there are 7iinety 
poiuids on the mai7i reservoir f 

A. The pump governor, which is connected with 
main reservoir pressure at 26 (Fig. 21). 

Q. Is the pump governor always set at ninety 
pounds f 

A. No ; only in level and hilly countr}\ In moun- 
tainous country, it is set much higher, also in level 
country where exceptionally long trains are handled. 



96 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

Q. The red hand on the gauge represents main 
reservoir pressure^ and the black ha7id is said to 
represent that on the train line. Is the pipe lead- 
ing to the black hand connected directly to the train 
line ? 

A. No ; it is connected to little drum pressure. (See 
21, Fig. 21.) 

Q, Why is it called train-line pressure if not 
connected to it ? 

A. Because in full release or running position port g 
furnishes a direct connection between the little drum 
and train line, and the pressures must be equal. 

Q, What is the next position to the right of 
running position f 

A. Lap position. 

Q, How does the air flow with the valve in this 
position ? 

A. There is no passage of the air as all ports are 
blanked. The rotary is moved around sujEciently to 
shut off port y in the rotary from port / in the rotary 
seat, and a small lug on the inside rim of the rotary 
also covers port g^ thus separating the train line from 
the little drum. In this position the main reservoir, 
train-line and little drum pressures are each by them.- 
selves. 

Q, What is the dividing line between the train-" 
line and little drum pressures in this position? 
A. The equalizing piston 18 (Fig. 21). 

Q. Do we still refer to the black hand as repre- 
senting train-line pressure on lap^ knowing the ports 
are closed between the little drum and train line f 

A, Yes. 



G 6 Engineer's Beake Valve. 97 

Q, If there zuere a leak on the train line, zvottld 
the black hand fall back if the valve is on lap ? 
A. Yes, but slowly. 

Q. Why ? 

A. Because in order to have piston i8 work smoothly 
the packing ring 19 (Fig. 21) must not be absolutely 
tight. If the train line leaks, the little drum pressure 
will gradually leak by the packing ring into the train 
line and equalize with it. 

Q, What would happen if this packing ring 
were tight ? 

A. With the valve on lap all train-line pressure could 
leak away and the black hand on the gauge would not 
show it. 

Q, What is the next position to the right of lap ? 
A. Service position. 

Q^ What is this position used for ? 

A. To make a gradual application of the brakes. 

Q. Explain this position, 

A. In this position, a groove p (Fig. 27) of the rotary 
•connects port e (Fig. 23) leading to the little drum 
through rotary seat with a groove h (Fig. 23) also in the 
rotary seat; li leads into the emergency exhaust h (Fig. 
.23), which is directly connected with the atmosphere as 
shown by the dotted lines. We then have a direct con- 
nection from the little drum to the atmosphere through 
small ports. 

Q. What is port e called? 

A. The preliminary exhaust port. This hole is 
bushed, and the bushing has a small taper hole througli 
it. 



98 Air-Brakb Catkchism. 

Q, In zuhat tiuo positions is it that the prelinii-- 
nmy exhattst port e is used? 

A. In the release position and also in the sendee po- 
sition. 

Q. What is its use i?i the release position of the 
brake valve f 

A. To permit main resen.'oir pressnre to feed down 
into chamber D above the equalizing piston 18, as 
shown in Fig. 21, Plate VI. 

Q, What is this port ttsed for in the service posi- 
tion of the brake valve? 

A. It is used to permit the pressnre above the 
equalizing piston, connected with the equalizing reser- 
voir through port s to escape to the atmosphere. 

Q, What effect does taking air from the little 
drnvi have? 

A. It reduces the pressure on top of piston 18. The 
pressures were the same on both sides of it, but when 
the reduction is made from the little drum in service 
position, it leaves piston 18 with the greater pressure 
underneath on the train-line side of the piston. 

Q. What effect has this? 

A. The train-line pressure being greater forces piston 
18 from its seat and allows train-line pressure to escape 
to the atmosphere through the train-line exhaust 2Z 
(Fig. 21.) 

Q. How long does piston 18 remain off its seat f 

A. Just as long as the train-line pressure is greater 
than that in the little drum. When the little drum 




Engineer's I 



Bottom View of Rotary Valve 



PLATE VI.-G 6 BRAKE VALVE WITH SLIDE-VALVE FEED VALVE. 




Fig. 21.— G 6 Engineer's Bk.vke V..\l\l. Release Position. 





Fig. 22.— G 6 Engineer's Brake V.\lve, Running Position. Fig. 23.— G 6 Engineer's Brake Valve, Plan View. 





Fig. 25.— Slide-Valve Feed Valve. 




Fig. 26— Top View of Rotakv Valve. Fig. 27.— Bottom View of Rotary V,\ 



G 6 Kngineer'S Brake Vai^ve. 99 

pressure is a trifle greater than the train line, piston i8 
is forced to its seat. 

Q, Do zve still speak of the black hand as repre- 
senting train-line pressure ? 
A. Yes. 

Q. How do we know it is the same as that in 
the little druin to which the gauge pipe leading to 
the black hand is C07inected ? 

A. Because the equalizing piston will take the same 
amount of pressure from the train line before it closes 
that the engineer took from the little drum. 

Q. If the engineer wishes to apply brakes gradtc- 
ally, does he take air from the train line ? 

A. No ; he takes it from the little drum, and piston 
1 8 takes care of the train line. 

Q, To what else in the brake system is the piston 
1 8 similar in its work ? 
A. The triple piston (Plates IV and V). 

Q, What is the next position to the right of 
service ? 

A. Emergency position. 

Q, Explain this position. 

A. The rotary is moved around so that the large 
cavity c (Fig. 27) is directly over the large ports / and ^ 
of the rotary seat (Pig. 23). Air passes from the train 
line at I into cavity c and out to the atmosphere through 
port h. 

Q, What is the object of using the large ports ? 

A. To get a very sudden reduction on the train line 
to cause the triple valves to go into quick action. 



loo Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q, Is the redtcction necessarily heavy to obtain 
quick action ? 

Ao No ; it is quick. 

Q. Does the little drum pressure or the equaliz- 
i7ig pisto7i play any part in the e77iergency applica- 
tion ? 

A. None whatever. 

Q, In ru7ining positio7i when the p2tmp stops we 
have ninety pounds in the main resei^voir and severity 
on the trai7i line. What is the difference between 
the pressure in the main reservoir a7td the train 
li7ie called? 

A« Excess pressure. 

Q. What is the 7tse of excess presstire ? 

A. It is a reserve power to throw into the train line, 
when the valve is placed in release position ^ to force the 
triple pistons to release position and help recharge the 
auxiliary reservoirs. 

Q. If the pu77tp were started with the ha7idle of 
the valve on lap, how much pressure would we get in 
the mai7i rese7^voir aftd how ni7ich i7i the train line ? 

A. Ninety pounds in the main reservoir and noth- 
ing in the train lineo 



WESTIXGHOUSE SLIDE-VALVE FEED 

VALVE. 

Q, What is the object of the Slide- Valve Feed 
Valve illustrated in Figs, 2^ and. 2^? 

A. To maintain a constant pressure on the train- 
line when the brake valve is in running position. This 
valve is now sent out with the Westinghouse Standard 
G 6 Brake Valve, instead of the old style feed valve, as 
shown in Fig. 28. It contains greater refinement 
of and a more positive action than the older form 
of feed valve, or train-line governor, as it is often des- 
ignated. It fastens to the same studs as the old valve 
and is interchangeable. Fig. 24 shows a central section 
through the supply valve case. Fig. 25 is a central sec- 
tion through the regulating valve and spring box and a 
transverse section through the supply valve case. 

Q Explain the operation of this valve, 

A. Ports/" and / (Fig. 25) register with the corres- 
ponding ports in the brake valve body (Fig. 23) ; main 
reservoir pressure can reach the feed valve through port 
f only when the brake valve is in running position. In 
this position it has free access through f and f wath 
chamber F. Chamber E^ which is separated from 
chamber F by the supply valve piston 54, is connected 
with passage / and thus with the train-line through pas- 
sage ^, ^, port a (controlled by regulating valve 59), and 
chamber G over diaphragm 57. Regulating valve 59 
is normally held open by diaphragm 57 and regulating 
spring 67, the tension of which is adjusted by regulating 
nut 65. When this valve is unseated chamber E is in 



I02 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

communication with the train-line and is subject to this 
pressure. 

When the handle of the brake valve is placed in run- 
ning position air pressure from the main reservoir 
enters chamber F and forces supply-valve piston 54 
forward, compressing spring" 58, drawing supply valve 
55 with it, thus uncovering port b. It thereby gains 
entrance directly into the train-pipe through ports /, i. 
The resulting increase of pressure in the train-line (and 
in chamber G over diaphragm 57) continues until it 
becomes sufficient to overcome the tension of regulating 
spring 67, previously adjusted at 70 pounds. Diaphragm 
57 then yields and permits the regulating valve 59 to be 
seated by spring 60, closing port a and cutting off com- 
munication between chamber E and the train-line. The 
pressures in chambers E and F now equalize quickly 
through leakage past supply-valve piston 54, and the 
supply-valve piston spring 58, previously compressed 
when the supply-valve w^as forced to the right, now 
reacts and forces supply-valve piston 54 and supply- 
valve 55 to their normal positions, closing port b and 
cutting off communication between the main reservoir 
and train-line. 

Q, What causes the feed valve to agaiJi permit 
maiii reservoir pressure to reach the trai7i4iiie ? 

A. A subsequent reduction of train-line pressure, 
either by leakage or otherwise, reduces the pressure in 
chamber G and permits regulating spring 67 to force 
diaphragm 57 up, thus unseating regulating valve 59, 
thereby permitting the pressure accumulated in chamber 
E to discharge into the train-line through ports <r, c and 
a^ chamber G and port i. The equilibrium of pressures 
upon the opposite faces of supply-valve piston 54 being 
thus destroyed, the higher main reser\^oir pressure in 
chamber F again forces supply-valve piston 54, and it in 
turn draws the supply-valve 55 over so as to expose 



Slide- Valve Feed Valve. 103 

port b^ which again permits the train-line pressure to be 
restored to a pressure of 70 pounds, or other prede- 
termined amount. 

Q. How can the train-line pressure be changed 
when nsing this feed valve f 

A. Remove the cap 66, turn the adjusting nut 65 in, 
to increase train-line pressure, and out to reduce it. 

Q, What conld be wrong if the train-line pres- 
sure eqttalized with that in the mai^t reservoir and 
this could 7iot be changed by readjusting the tension 
of the re gidating spring 6yf 

A. Aside from the causes already explained in con- 
nection with the brake valve proper, there might be a 
leak between ports f and i in the gasket (Fig. 29), be- 
tween the feed valve and brake valve proper ; dirt on 
the seat of the supply valve 55, or the regulating valve 
59, or a poor seat on either ; or the part of the regulating 
valve stem that rests upon diaphragm 57 being too long. 
Dirt on diaphragm 57, which would hold regulating 
valve 59 unseated, would produce the same result. 

Q, What could make the regulating valve stent 
too long? 

A. Bv orrindins: the valve in. After this is done it 
should be noted that the end of the stem is flush with 
the projection of the casting upon which diaphragm 57 
rests. 

Q. Why would dirt on the seat of the regulating 
valve jp cause train-line pressure to become too 
high ? 

A. With dirt on the seat of the regulating valve 59 
air from chamber E^ at the right of piston 54, could escape 
to the train-line. If it escaped faster than main reservoir 
pressure could leak by the piston 54, the pressure in 
chamber E would be less than that in chamber E^ and 



I04 Air-Brake Catechism. 

the supply valve 55 and piston 54 would be moved to 
the right, exposing port /;, which connects main reservoir 
and train-line pressures, and the train-line would be 
overcharged. 

Q, IVJiat is the object of the brass button at the 
end of the supply-valve piston spring ^8 ? 

x\. As a spring is compressed there is a winding 
action set up, and a tendency for the spring to turn the 
piston, and the piston in turn to twist the supply valve 
from its seat. By the use of the button there is no 
chance for this action, as a very slight bearing is in con- 
tact between the button and piston. The effect of the 
winding action of the spring on the piston is thus 
destroyed. 

Q. Name the different parts of the slide-valve 
feed valve. 

A. 51, the body; 52, the flush nut; 53, cap nut; 
54, supply-valve piston ; 55, supply valve ; 56, supply- 
valve spring; 57, diaphragm; 58, supply-valve piston 
spring ; 59, regulating valve ; 60, regulating- valve spring ; 
61, regulating-valve cap nut ; 62, spring box ; 63, dia- 
phragm ring ; 64, diaphragm spindle ; 65, adjusting nut ; 
66, check nut ; and 67, the adjusting spring. 



FEED VALVE OR TRAIN-LINE GOVERNOR. 

Q, What is the duty of the train-line governor ? 

A. To keep any desired pressure on the train line 
with the handle of the engineer's valve in running 
position. 

Q, Does it play a part in any other than run- 
71 ing positio n ? 

A, No. 

Q, Explain the actio7i of the old style governor 
with the engineer'^ s valve i^i run^zing position, 

A. The spring 68 (Fig. 28) supports piston 74, and the 
piston holds the valve 63 from its seat. As long as the air 
pressure on top of the piston is less than the tension of 
the spring 68, valve 63 is held from its seat, and main 
reservoir pressure coming in through port / feeds into 
port i as indicated by the arrow, and on into the train 
line. When the pressure above the piston is greater 
than the tension of the spring 68, the piston is forced 
down, allowing valve 63 to seato 

Q. How is the train-line pressure regulated? 

A. By screwing up on the nut 70 to strengthen the 
spring and hold valve 63 from its seat longer to gain 
train-line pressure, and lowering nut 70 to weaken train- 
line pressure. 

Q, Of what use are the rubber gaskets 7^ and 
the packing ring 67? 



io6 



Air-Brakb Catechism, 



A. To keep train-line pressure from leaking down 
through the governor and out to the atmosphere. 

Q. What governor troubles will allow full main 
reservoir pressure to go through the governor to 
train line? 




FiGc 28.— Fked Vai,ve or Train-IvInk Governor. 

A. (i) Dirt or scale on the seat of the valve 63 
(Fig. 14). ^ 

(2) Spring 68 being screwed up too stiff. 

(3) A leak between the holes of the gasket 56 where 
the governor is bolted to the body of the engineer's valve. 



Feed Valve or Train-Line Governor. 107 

(4) The lower body of the governor 69 being screwed 
up too tight. 

Q. Explain why the above trottbles would pre- 
vent the gov er7ior from shutting off the main reser- 
voir pressure when the desired a^nount of train- 
li^ie pressure had bee7i reached, 

A. (i) Dirt or scale would not allow valve 63 to 
seat. 

(2) Spring 68 being too stiff would hold valve 63 from 
its seat too long. 

(3) The following sketch showing the gasket between 
the train-line governor and the engineer's valve will 
explain the third trouble and its effect. The dotted line 
represents the leako 




O (£>--G O 




Fig. 29. 

(4) The bottom casing 69 being screwed up too tight 
would crush the rubber gasket 72 at the outer edge. 
The inside of the gasket, not being injured, would lift 
the piston so high that valve 63 could not get low 
enough to seat. In this case the spring 68 could be 
taken entirely out, and still we could get no excess as 
our train-line and main reservoir pressures would equal- 
ize. 

Q. If we wish to remove valve 6j to clean it 
when there is a trai^i coupled to the engine, how 
should it be done ? 



io8 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

A. Turn the cut-out cock in the train line under the 
engineer's valve and place the handle in service position 
to remove the train-line pressure between the engineer's 
valve and the cut-out cocko Then remove nut 65 and 
valve 63. 

Q. How should valve 6j be cleaned ? 

A. With oil. The seat should never be scraped to re- 
move any gum, as it is a lead seat and a scratch would 
ruin it. 

Q. What should be done before replacing valve 
63 ? 

A. The valve should be moved to running position 
to blow out any loose dirt or scale. 

Q. Does the valve 6j begin to close before ftill 
train-line pressure is reached? 

A. Yes ; the spring 68 begins to be compressed a 
little before full train pressure is reached so that the last 
few pounds feed more slowly into the train line. 

Q, How would you remove piston /^ if it stuck ? 
A. First remove valve 63 as just described, and then 
replace the cap nut 65. Next remove the lower body 
68. Grasp the stem of the piston 66 with the right 
hand and move the handle of the engineer's valve to 
running position with the left. The main reservoir 
pressure coming in will blow out the piston, after which 
lap the valve. Never drive the piston out by putting a 
punch on the stem unless the punch is at least as large 
as the stem. 

Q, In replacing piston 7^, what care shoiild be 
exercised ? 

A. To carefully enter the packing ring of the piston 
into the brass bushing. Never pound it in as some- 
thing would be broken or sprung. 



Feed Valve or Train-Line Governor. 109 

Q, With the handle of the engineer s valve on 
lap, could the trai7i'line governor be removed entirely 
without losing main reservoir pressure ? 

A. Yes ; all ports are blocked, and main reservoir 
pressure could not get through the rotary in this 
position. 

Q, What harm would a leak by the packing ring 
6 J and through tJie rubber gaskets ^2 do ? 

A. No harm, except what any small leakage of 
train-line pressure would do. 



THE LITTLE DRUM, OR CAVITY D. 




Fig. 30.— The I.itti.k Drum, or Cavity D. 

Q, How else is the little drum^ or cavity D, some- 
times spoken of ? 

A. As the engineer's equalizing auxiliary. 

Q. Where is the little drum usually located f 

A. Under the foot-boards of the cab, on either the 
fireman's or engineer's side, according to which has the 
most free space. 

Q^ What is the object of the little drum ? 

A. To furnish a volume of air on top of the equaliz- 
ing piston in the engineer's valve. 

Q. Would not the air in the small cavity over 



The Little Drum, or Cavity Dc hi 

the equalizing piston hold air enough to keep the 
piston on its seat f 

A. Yes ; but there is not a sufficient volume there 
to draw from in making service reductions to make 
them sufficiently gradual. 

Q, What would happen whe^z the engineer put 
the handle of the engi^ieer^s valve i7i service position^ 
if there were no little drum to furnish a vokime of 
air on top of the eq7calising piston ? 

A. The air would leave the top of the piston in a 
flash on account of the small volume, the black hand on 
the gauge would fall to the pin, the equalizing piston 
rise full stroke, all train-line pressure would rush to the 
atmosphere through the train-line exhaust, and the en- 
gineer would have lost control of the brakes. 

Q, Hozu would the brakes on the train act? 

A. If a long train were coupled to the engine, the 
brakes would go full set in a service application ; but if 
a train of less than about six or seven cars, the brakes 
would go into quick action. 

Q, Why f till service on a long train and quick 
action on a short one ? 

A. On a short train, when the equalizing piston flew 
up, air from the train line would go to the atmosphere 
through the train-line exhaust faster than the auxiliary 
pressure could get from the auxiliary to the brake 
cylinder through the service port of the triple slide valve. 
When the auxiliary pressures were enough stronger than 
that on the train line, they would force out the triple 
pistons and compress the graduating springs, causing 
the triples to go into quick action. 

On a train of any length the train-line pressure, due 
to the greater volume on the train line, could not get out 
of the train-line exhaust any faster than the auxiliary 



112 Air-Brake Catechism. 

pressure could feed through the slide valves to the brake 
cylinders, and the auxiliary pressures would not be 
strong enough to compress the graduating springs, but, 
losing all train-line pressure, would apply the brakes in 
full service application c 

Q. The three-way cock was done away zuiih to 
get a valve that would mechanically make a gradual 
desired train-line rediiction regardless of the length 
of the train. What is it about the valve now 7csed 
that allozus this to be done? 

Ac The little drum in conjunction with the equaliz- 
ing piston. 

Q, Does an engineer have to leave the handle 
of the engineer s valve in service position any longer 
to make a train-line reduction of five po2cnds on 
a lonor train than on a short 07ie? 

A. No; all little drums are of the same size. If a 
five-pound train-line reduction is desired, the engineer 
releases five pounds from the little drum to the atmos- 
phere, and the equalizing piston takes care of the train- 
line pressure regardless of the length of the train, 

Q. If by any chance the pipe leading to the 
little dr2tm were broken of\ conld we still handle 
the brakes? 

A. Yes, 

O, How ? 

x\. Plug the broken pipe and also the train-line ex- 
haust. When wishing to apply the brakes in service, 
our service position would be of no use as the train- line 
exhaust is plugged ; so move the valve part way into 
emergency position, being careful not to get it too far 
into emergency position so as to make too sudden a re- 
duction, and when putting the valve back on lap do not 



The Little Drum, or Cavity D. 113 

stop the train-line reduction too quickly or the surge of 
air forAvard may release some of the head brakes. 

Q. In such a case, into what have we trails- 
foi^med our efficient valve ? 

A. Practically into an old three-way cock. 

Q. How do we tell 7/ the preliminary exhatcst 
port e is free from gum and corrosion? 

A. Place the engineer's valve in ser^'ice position and 
watch the black hand on the gauge. It should take 
about five or six seconds to reduce the pressure in the 
little drum from seventy to fifty pounds through the 
preliminary exhaust port. 

Q. What, besides the fact that the preliminary 
exhaust port is partially closed^ would cause it to 
take lono'er than six seconds to make this reduction ? 

A. See the engineer's valve (Fig. 21). If the gasket 
32 leaked between the main reservoir and little drum, or 
between the train line and little drum, or if the packing 
ring 19 were sufficiently loose to allow train-line press- 
ure to feed by too quickly. 

Q. If it takes less than five seconds to make 
this reduction, what is probably the matter ? 

A. There is a leak somewhere in the connection to 
the little drum, which helps make the reduction. 



PECULIARITIES AND TROUBLES OF THE 

G 6 VALVE. 

Q. What two troubles in the engineer s valve 
aside from those in the train-line governor would 
not permit any excess pressure zuith the handle of 
the engineer s valve in rttnning position ? 

A. A leak in the lower gasket 32 (Fig. 21) between 
the main reserv^oir and the little drum and a leaky 
rotary. 

Q. Why does air leaking from the main reser- 
voir to the little dricm in rumiing position not per- 
mit a7iy excess pressure ? 

A. Because in this position the little drum and train 
line are directly connected. 

Q. Does gasket j2 leak very often ? 

A. No ; this is a trouble seldom encountered. 

Q. What indications are given by such a leak ? 

A. In service position it would take longer to make 
a given reduction on the little drum, as air is feeding in 
slowly at the same time it is being taken out through 
the preliminary exhaust. As soon as the valve was 
placed on lap the black hand would quickly feed up to 
main reservoir pressure. 

Q. If the air were leaking into the little drum 
by gasket j2 as fast as it was being rejuoved through 
the preliminary exhaust port, zuhat would happen ? 



Peculiarities and Troubles of the G 6 Valve, i 15 

A. The equalizing piston could not be raised and the 
only way the brakes could be applied would be by using 
the emergency position. 

Q. Hoiu docs the leaking of the rotary do azuay 
with excess? 

A. The air from the main reservoir leaks under the 
rotary seat directly into the train line. 

p. What harm besides that of destroying excess 
luill resnlt from a leaky rotaiy ? 

A. We get main reserv^oir pressure on the train line 
and consequently in the auxiliaries, and the use of ninety 
instead of seventy pounds for braking purposes would 
slide the wheels. After the brakes were applied and the 
valve was en lap, air leaking into the train line from 
the main resen^oir would gradually increase train-line 
pressure and force triples to release position. Without 
the proper excess it would also be hard to release brakes. 

Q. Hozu would y 02c test for a leaky rotary? 

A. Start the pump with the valve handle on lap. If 
the black hand starts, the rotary leaks. Gasket 32 leak- 
mg would also cause this, but this leak so seldom liap^ 
pens. It may be disregarded in practicCc 

Q, Give another way of testiiig for a leaky 
rotary, 

A. Put the valve on lap and drain everything but the 
mam reservoir ; open the angle cock at the rear of the 
tender and put the hose in a pail of water. If bubbles 
rise to the surface the rotary is leaking. 

Q. Which is the better test ? 

^ A. The second is the more delicate test, but the first 
IS sufficiently practical and is easier. 



ii6 Air-Brakb Catechism. 

Q. Why sJiotdd everything be drained in making 
the ivater test ? 

A. Because with all air taken from the train line by 
opening the angle cock at the rear of the tender, air 
leaking by the packing ring 19 in the piston 18 into the 
train line would cause bubbles to rise to the surface of 
the water. The same thing would result if air from the 
tender and driver brake auxiliaries leaked by the triple 
piston-packing rings. The bubbles would seem to indi- 
cate a leaky rotary, w^hile it was merely an improperly 
conducted test. 

Q, Why can we sometimes get no excess with the 
valve in r2inni7ig position when the engine is alone, 
although the hands will stand properly at ninety 
and seventy when the e7igi7ie is conpled to a train ? 

A. It simply means that when coupled to a train the 
leaks on the train compensate for the leak through the 
engineer's valve. 

Q. What will cause a constant leak out of the 
trai7i-li7ie exhatist 22 (Fig. 21) , whether the valve 
is 071 ftcll release, ru7ining, or lap position ? 

A. Dirt on the seat of the valve at the end of the 
stem of piston 18. 

Q. What is the trouble if this leak does not exist 
in ftill release or running position^ but begi7is as 
S0071 as the valve is placed on lap ? 

A. A leakage of little drum pressure causes piston 18 
to rise. 

Q. Where could this leak be ? 

A. In the little drum itself ; in the pipe leading to it ; 
in the pipe leading to the black hand on the gauge ; 
gasket 32 leaking so as to allow little drum pressure to 
escape to the atmosphere ; a scratch on the rotary seat 



Peculiarities and Troubles of the G 6 Valve. 117 

between the preliminary exhaust port e and the groove 
li leading to the atmosphere. 

Q, Why does it leak on lap and not on running 
07^ fitll release position ? 

A. Because the leak is not fed on lap, as all ports are 
closed, but it is in the other two positions. 

Q, If the two hands on the gauge do not show 
the same pressure when the valve is left i7i full re- 
lease position, what is the trouble? 

A. The gauge is incorrect. The main reservoir and 
train line being directly connected in this position both 
gauge hands should show the same pressure. 

Q. What could be the trouble if in running 
position the red hand showed severity and the black 
ninety po^mds ? 

A. The gauge pipes have been connected to the 
wrong hands. 

Q, What should be do7ie if piston 18 does not 
respond readily to reductions and seeins to stick ? 

A. The piston should be removed and cleaned ; but 
never remove the packing ring 19, as it may be sprung 
or broken. 

Get the ring to work free by using kerosene oil to 
clean it. 

Q, How would you apply the brakes if the pre- 
liminary exhaust port were closed and no reduction 
could be made i7i service position ? 

A. Go carefully toward the emergency position. It 
might be done by lapping the valve and unscrewing the 
nut a little that connects the pipe leading to the little 
drum to the brake valve. 



OPERATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE 

D 8 VALVE. 




TO GOVERNOR 

■>TRAIN PIPE 
PRESSURE 



Fig. 31.— D 8 Brake Vai,ve. 
G. Which valve is most tised, the G 6 or the 

A. The G 6, but the D 8 is also used to quite an 
extent 



Operation and Description of the D 8 Valve. 119 

Q. Hozv do the two valves compare with each 
other in the general prificiple of operation ? 

A. They are alike in principle, but the same results 
are reached by differently constructed valves. 

Q. Do they have the same positions ? 

A. Yes. 

Q, Is there any difference in the pipe co7i7ieC' 
lions of the two valves ? 

A. Yes, with the G 6 valve the pipe carrying air to 
the pump governor is connected to main reservoir press- 
ure, while with the D 8 valve it is connected to the 
train line. This will be seen by comparing the cuts of 
the two valves. 

Q, Explain the f till release position of the D 8 

valve. 

A. With the handle 8 of the valve (Fig. 31) in full 
release position, the air coming from the main reservoir 
enters the engineer's valve at X, passes on top of the 
rotary, through port a of the rotary 13, port h of the 
rotary seat and into cavity c of the rotary, thence through 
port I and into the train line at F. 

Port g in the rotary seat (Fig. Zi) leads to chamber D 
and is exposed to cavity c of the rotary in this position 
of the valve so that air passing from the main reservoir 
into the train line through cavity c is also free to go to 
the little drum through port g. 

In this position Fig. 32 shows port 7' open to port e, 
and main reservoir pressure passes directly to the little 
drum through these ports. 

Q, How many ports lead to the little drum in 
full release ? 

A. Two ; the same as with the G 6 valve. 



I20 Air-Brakb Catechism. 

Q. How many to the train line ? 

A. One large one, as with the G 6 valve. 

Q, In full release the 7nain reservoir, train 
line, and little dru7n are C07i7iected, How much 
pressure will we get on each if the pump is started 
with the valve in this position? 

A, Seventy pounds. 

Q. Why seventy ? 

A. Because with this valve, the train-line pressure 
governs the pump, and the train line usually carries 
seventy pounds. 

Q, Do we still have a connectioii between the 
main reservoir and train line when the handle is 
moved to running position ? 

A. No, not a direct connection as in full release. 

Q. Do we have a connection between the train 
line and little drum f 
A. Yes. 

Q, Explain the running position of this valve. 

A. In this position port j (Fig. 32) is moved around 
directly over port / in the rotary seat. The main 
reservoir pressure coming from the top of the rotary 
feeds through ports j and / and strikes the valve 2 1 , 
which is held to its seat by the excess pressure sprino- 
20. This spring has a tension of twenty pounds so tha:- 
when the main reserv^oir pressure is twenty pounds 
greater than that back of the valve, or train-line pressure, 
the valve is forced from its seat and the air coming from 
the main reservoir passes through port/ (Fig. Z'^ into port 
I and into the train line at F. At the same time it feeds 
into the train line through port I, it feeds up under 
the rotary into cavity c which, as in full release, is ex- 
posed to port ?. Port g in the rotary seat (Fig. 'Z^ is still 



Opi^ratiox and description of the D 8 Valve. 121 

exposed to cavity r, and as air passes into the train line 
it also passes up into cavity c and through port g (See 
Figs. 31 and Z2>) iiito cavity D, or the little drum. 

Q. With this valve in ru7i7iing position, how 
niitch pressure do zve get on the main reservoir and 
train line ? 

A . Ninety pounds on the main reservoir and seventy 
on the train line. 

Q. What stops the pump when zve have the 
ninety and seventy pounds ? 

A. The pump governor, which is actuated by train- 
line pressure. (See 15, Fig. 31.) 

Q. What gives ns the excess pressure of twenty 
pounds in the main reservoir ? 

A. The excess pressure spring 20. 

Q. Moving the valve to lap, zvhat is done? 
A. All ports are blanked. 

Q, What shuts the little drum off from the 
train-line pressure on lap? 

A. A lug on the inside of the rotary rim covers port 
(J (Fig. 33) in this position. 

Q. Where is air d^raiun from in sei^vice posi- 
tion ? 

A. From cavity D, or the little drum. 

Q. Explain this position. 

A. In this position, the slot ]) on the under side of 
the rotary (Fig. 34) connects port c^ which leads through 
the rotary seat to the little drum, with port li in the 
rotary seat (Figs. 32 and 33^ leading to the atmosphere. 




-20 



Fig. 32.—D 8 Brake Valve. 



Operation and Description of the D 8 Valve. 123 



TO GU'AQ'E 

.RESERVOIR 
2Q PRESSCmt 




TO QUAGE 

TRAIN PIPE pHesauRB 



Fig. 33.— D 8 Brakk Vai,vk. 



Q, How does the reduction of little drum press- 
tire affect the equalizing piston ly ? 

A. The same as with the G 6 valve. 



1^4 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



Q. Is tJicre any difference between the emergency 
position of this and tJie G 6 valve ? 
A. No. 

O, What is the object of the small slot in the 
rotary seat (Fig. Jj) leading from port e, which 
leads to cavity D, towards port f ? 

K. This port comes into use when moving the rotary 
into full release position= It is to allow main reservoir 




Fig. 34.— Showing Bottom Side of Rotary of D 8 Vai.ve. 

pressure to reach cavity D on top of the equalizing pis- 
ton through port J a trifle sooner than it reaches the 
train-line pressure underneath the piston 17. Just as 
soon as the rotary is moved past running position toward 
full release, port j in the rotary is connected with the 
slot in the rotar}^ seat leading to port e, thus allowing 
main reserv^oir pressure to reach the top of piston 17 a 
trifle sooner than it reaches the train-line pressure 
underneath the piston. 



Operation and Description of the D 8 Valve. 125 

Q, What would happen if the air from the 
main reservoir reached the U7ider side of the piston 

A. The piston would be forced from its seat, espe- 
cially on a short train, and there would be an unneces- 
sary waste of air before the piston would seat. 



PECULIARITIES AND TROUBI^ES OF THE 

D 8 VALVE. 

Q, Why is the equalizing piston // raised nearly 
every tune the handle is thrown to full release, on 
an engvte alone, while if the engine is coupled to a 
train of four or more cars this does not happen ? 

A, In full release two small ports charge the little 
drum and one large one charges the train line. On an 
engine alone the volume of air in the train line and the 
little drum are so nearly equal that charging the train 
line so much faster through a large port than the little 
drum is charged through two small ones makes the press- 
ure greater underneath piston 17 than that above it. 
The piston is consequently forced from its seat and 
enough train- line pressure is lost through the train-line 
exhaust to allow little drum pressure to force piston 17 
to its seat. 

Q, Does this happen with both valves ? 
A. Yes. 

Q, Why does this not happen whe^i the engine 
is coupled to some air cars ? 

A. Because in this case the large port used to charge 
the train line in full release has a large space to supply 
with air, and the little drum is charged faster than the 
train line. 

Q, Which hand should start first if the piunp 
is started with the valve in full release position ? 



Peculiartties and Troubles of the D 8 Valve. 127 

A. They should start together and stop at seventy 
pounds. 

Q. Which hand shoiild start first in running 
position ? 

A. The red should go up twenty pounds before the 
black hand moves. They should then proceed twenty 
pounds apart and stop when ninety pounds is registered 
by the red hand and seventy by the black. 

Q, What is the tronble if both hands start and 
remai^i together with the valve in rttnning position ? 

A. The rotary leaks or there is dirt on the excess 
pressure valve 21 (Fig. 32). 

O. Hozu do zue tell which it is ? 

A. Try the rotary on lap as described with the G 6 
valve, to see if it leaks. If it is tight the trouble is with 
the excess pressure valve. The trouble will be found 
to be dirt on the seat of the excess pressure valve nine- 
teen times out of twenty. 

Q, Hozi) canyon remove the excess pressure valve 
when everything is charged? 

A. Turn the cut-out cock under the engineer's valve, 
place the rotary on service position and remove the cap 
nut 19. 

Q, After we remove the excess pressure valve, 
clean it and the chamber in which it works, what 
should be done ? 

A. The rotary should be placed in running position 
to blow out any loose dirt or scale before replacing the 
valve. 

Q, What c arises this g2im to collect here? 

A. The too free use of oil or a poor kind on the air 
end of the pump. 



128 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q, If the red hanci stands at eighty and the 
black hand at seventy when the pump stops and the 
rotary is in run7iing positiofi^ what is ivj^ong? 

A. The excess pressure spring 20 (Fig. 32) is weak. 

Q, What if the red stands at ofie hzindred a^id 
the black at seventy ? 

A. The excess pressure spring is too stiflf. 

Q, What if the red stands at eighty and the 
black at sixty, or the red at one htindred and the 
black at eighty ? 

A. The pump governor needs adjusting. 

Q. What is the trouble if no air will pass into 
the train line with the valve in running position ? 

A. The excess pressure valve is stuck to its seat. 

O. What has to be done ? 

--— ^ 

A. The handle of the valve has to be run in full re- 
lease until the excess pressure valve chamber can be 
cleaned. 

Q, How much pressure will we get on the main 
resei^voir and how much on the train line if the 
pump is started with the valve on lap ? 

A. No pressure in the train line, and boiler pressure 
in the main reservoir. 

Q, Why boiler pressure in the main reservoir ? 

A. Because the pump continues to work as long as 
the steam is strong enough to compress the air higher, 
there being no air in the train line to work the governor 
and stop the pump. 

Q, Does the main reservoir pressure run up 
this way when the brakes are applied and the valve 
is on lap ? 

A. Yes. 



Peculiarities and Troubles of the D 8 Valve. 129 

Q. How is tJiis overcovie ? 

A. The engineer watches the gauge and partially 
closes the pump throttle, or, on some roads, two governors 
are used, one connected to the main reservoir pressure 
and the other, as in the cut (Fig. 33), with the train line. 

O. What is likely to happen if this high press- 
2ire gets into the train line? 

A. The wheels are likely to be slid and the hose burst. 

Q, If the rotary or excess pressure valves leak 
with the D 8 valve, how will the pu7np work ? 

A. After stopping, the pump will not start working 
again until both train-line and main reservoir pressures 
have leaked below seventy pounds or that at which the 
governor is set. 

Q. Why is it that with the valve inidzuay be- 
tween the service a7id full emergency positions the 
black hand shows main reservoir pressure, when zue 
know by the positio7i of the valve that there is no air 
in the train line ? 

A. This is a peculiarity of the valve. In this posi- 
tion port j of the rotary stands over port g of the rotary 
seat that leads to the little drum. In this case the press- 
ure represented is what is in the little drum but not in 
the train line, as the train line is connected to the at- 
mosphere by a large port. 

Q, Are the troubles with the equalizing piston 
described in the expla7iatio7i of the G 6 valve ap- 
plicable to the eqtializing piston of the D 8 valve ? 

A, Yes, 



A COMPARISON OF THE G 6 AND D 8 
BRAKE VALVES. 

Q. How much pressure do we get in the mam 
reservoir, train line and little dric^n with the G 6 
a7id D 8 brake valves, if the pump is started zuith 
the valves ifi fzill release and left there ttntil it 
it ops? 

A. Ninety pounds in each with the G 6 valve, and 
seventy in each with the D 8 valve. 

Q. How do the hands 07i the gauge go up with 
the G 6 and D 8 valves, if the ptunps are started 
with the valves in ru7ining position ? 

A. With the G 6 valve both hands go together to 
seventy pounds, when the black hand stops, and the 
red hand continues until ninety pounds is reached in the 
main reservoir. 

With the D 8 valve the red hand goes up twenty 
pounds before the black moves. They continue to rise 
twenty pounds apart and stop with ninety on the red 
and seventy pounds on the black hand. 

Q. Why is a leak on the train line more likely 
to creep the brakes 07i with the D 8 than with the 
G 6 valve, with the valves in r^mning position ? 

A. Because in this position air will feed into the 
train line if the pressure there is less than seventy 
pounds with the G 6 valve, while with the D 8 no air 
will feed into the train line unless there is twenty 



A Comparison of the F 6 and D 8 Brake Valves. 131 

pounds more pressure in the main reservoir than in the 
train line. 

0. What is the difference between the tzuo valves 
in the stopping of the ptunp ? 

A. With the G 6 valve, the pump stops when the 
desired pressure is compressed into the main reservoir, 
regardless of the pressure in the train line, while with 
the D 8 valve it is exactly the reverse. 

Q, How 7n2tch pressure zuill we get on the main 
reservoir and train line with these valves, if the 
pump is started with the valves on lap ? 

A. Ninety pounds on the main reservoir and nothing 
on the train line with the G 6 valve ; boiler pressure on 
the main reservoir and nothing on the train line with 
the D 8 valve. 



WESTINGHOUSE PUMPS. 

Q. What four sizes of ptmips are tJiere? 
A. The 6, 8, 9^ and ii-inch pumps. 

Q. Is the 6'incJi picmp still in use ? 
A. Yes, but very few are ever seen. 

Q. What is the use of the pump in the air-brake 
system ? 

A. To compress the air used in applying and re- 
leasing the brakes. 

Q, Which pump is gradually becom^ing the 
standard, and why ? 

A. The 9|-inch pump, because the number of air 
cars now used in trains requires a pump of greater 
capacity to insure recharging the train more quickly in 
descending grades. 

Q, How is dry steam obtained for the pump ? 

A. A pipe is screwed into the dome near its top and 
a pump throttle conveniently located in the pipe, or a 
dry pipe is run from the top of the dome back through 
the boiler and coupled to a pump throttle screwed into 
the top of the boiler inside of the cabc 

Q, What would happen if this dry pipe leaked 
inside the boiler ? 

A. Water would work into the pump and wash out 
the oil, causing the pump to groan and cut. 



PLATE VIL— THE NINE AND ONE-HALF INCH LMPROVED AIR PUMP. 




Fig. 35 



Fig. 36 



9i-lNCH Pump. 133 

Q, What is placed between the pump throttle 
and the pump ? 

A. The lubricator and pump governor. 

Q. How are they located? 

A. The pump governor next to the pump, and the 
lubricator between the governor and pump throttle. 

Q, What would happen if the lubricator were 
placed next the pump ? 

A. When the pump governor shut oflf the steam, 
with the lubricator ordinarily used, the steam between 
the lubricator and pump governor condensing would 
form a vacuum that would draw all the oil from the 
lubricator, and there would be a great waste of oil. 

Q. What is the capacity of a gy2'inch pump i^i 
good condition ? 

Ao With one hundred and forty pounds of steam 
pressure, a gj-inch pump will compress air from zero 
to seventy pounds in thirty-eight seconds in a reservoir 
26 J X 34 inches, and from twenty to seventy pounds in 
twenty-seven seconds. 

Q, What is the capacity of an 8-inch ptimp in 
good condition ? 

A. With one hundred and forty pounds of steam 
pressure, the 8-inch pump will compress air from zero 
to seventy pounds in a main reservoir 26J x 34 inches 
long (outside measurement) in sixty-eight seconds, and 
from twenty to seventy pounds in fifty seconds. The 
reservoir contains about 8f cubic feeto 

9J-INCH Pump. 

Q, What is the office of the parts i7i the top 
head of the gyi-inch piimp \Plate VII ) f 



134 Air-Be AKE Catechism o 

A. They with the reversing rod 71 form the valve 
motion of the pump. 

Q. What is Fig. S7 {P^^i^ V^I) ^ 

A. It is a cut of the bushing inside of which the 
slide valve 83 moves when actuated by the movement of 
the pistons ^'] and 79, because fastened to their connect- 
ing stemo 

Q, What are ports b, d, and cKFig.37, Plate VII) f 

A. They correspond exactly to the ports in the valve 
seat of a locomotive. 

In Fig. 35 (Plate VII) we see that b leads to the bottom of 
the steam cylinder, c' to the top, and d leads to the 
exhaust pipe at F. 

Q. Of what use is port t {Fig. 37, Plate VII) ? 

A= It is a port by means of which chamber E at the 
left of the small piston 79 is connected with the atmos- 
phere through port d. 

Q, If this port were not there, would ike pump 

reverse ? 

A. No; when the main valve pistons 77 and 79 
moved to the left, a back pressure would be formed in 
chamber E that would stop the reversing movement of 
the pistons ^'] and 79 and stop the pump. 

Q. Explain the passage of steam after it enters 
the pump at X, and its effect, 

A. Steam coming from the boiler through the pump 
governor enters the pump at X, thence passes through 
ports a, a' and a^ (Figs. 35 and 36, Plate VII), into 
<. liamber A between the main valve pistons. The area 
of piston 77 being so much greater than that of 79, the 
steam moves these pistons to the right, carrying the slide 
valve 83 (Figs. 35 and 36) with them to the position shown 



9i-lNCH Pump. 135 

in Fig. 35. Steam in chamber A is now free to pass 
tiirough ports 6, 1/ and h^ nnderneatli the main piston 65. 

Q. What iuo7ild become of any steam above 
piston 65? 

A. Any steam above this piston is free to pass to the 
atmosphere through ports c, c' , the exhaust cavity B of 
the slide valve, d, d\ d^ ^ and through the exhaust pipe 
from F. 

Q. How is the pump reversed? 

A. The main piston 65 is now being forced up by 
the steam pressure, and just before it reaches the top of 
its stroke the reversing plate 69 strikes the lug / on the 
reversing rod 71, lifting the rod. As this rod is lifted 
the reversing slide valve 72 (Fig. 36) is carried up with it, 
and the pump is reversed. 

Q, What is the duty of the reversi^ig slide valve 
72 {Fig. 36) f 

A. The duty of this valve is to admit and exhaust 
steam from chamber D (Fig. 35) between the piston 77 
and head 84, and, as now shown, it exhausts steam from 
cavity D through ports li and h! (Figs. 37 and 36), port H 
of the reversing slide valve, and through ports/, /, c?, 
d\ d\ and out at F. 

Q, How does raising the reversing slide valve 
reverse the motion of the pump ? 

A. As the reversing valve is lifted by the rod 71, 
port r; in the bushing (Figs. 36 and 37) is exposed to the 
steam pressure which is always in chamber (7, which is 
in constant communication with chamber A by means of 
ports e and c' (Fig. 36). 

When valve 72 is raised, steam passes through port g 
(Figs. 36 and '^']) into cavity D. We now have equal 
steam pressure on both sides of piston 77, and it is 
balanced ; but the pressure acting on the right of piston 



136 Air- Brake Catechism, 

79 moves the pistons and the slide valve to the left, 
connecting the steam pressure in chamber A with the 
top of piston 65 through ports c^ and c, and the under 
side of piston 65 is connected with the atmosphere 
through ports b\ b\ b, cavity B of the slide valve 83, dy 
d\ d% and out at Y. 

Q. The piston 6^ is now 07t its down st7^oke ; 
what brings the stroke to the point from which we 
started ? 

A. The reversing plate 69 strikes the button at the 
bottom of the reversing rod 71 and pulls the reversing 
slide valve 72 down to its position as shown in Fig. 36. 
We have now completed one entire stroke of the pump» 

Q, Which are the receiving valves ? 
A. Those marked 86 at the left of Fig. 35. 

Q. Which are the discharge valves? 

A. Those marked 86 at the right of the pump. 

Q, Describe the action of the air end of the 
pump. 

A. As piston 66 is raised, the air above the piston is 
compressed and a vacuum would be formed underneath 
if air from the atmosphere did not enter through the 
lower receiving valve 86. 

The ports are so arranged that the pressure above the 
piston will strike the receiving valve from above, forcing 
it to its seat, and the discharge valve underneath, forcing 
it from its seat, allowing the compressed air to pass down 
and out into the main reservoir at Z. 

The suction underneath the piston allows atmospheric 
pressure entering at W to force the lower receiving valve 
from its seat and fill the cylinder underneath the piston 
with air. The lower discharge valve 86 is held to its 
seat by main reservoir pressure. When the pump is 



9J-INCH Pump — Peculiarities, Troubles, CarEo 137 

reversed, the opposite valves from those just described 
are aflfected in the same way. 

Q, Of what use is the port in the cap 7^ (^?^- 
j(5, Plate VI I ^ luhich leads to the top of the stem 7/ ? 

A. This port is connected with the top end of the 
steam cylinder. Were it not for this port there would 
be a back pressure on top of stem 71 which would not 
allow the reversing slide valve to be raised to reverse the 
pump. This port is connected with the atmosphere 
through the top end of the steam cylinder, as shown in 
Fig. 2, each time this end of the cylinder is connected 
with the atmosphere. 



9J-INCH Pump — Peculiarities, Troubles, Care. 

Q. What sliould be done in packing the p2cnip ? 

A. It should be packed loosely and the gland nuts 
96 screwed up only sufficient to prevent a blow. Do 
not use a wrench if no blow exists when the gland is 
screwed up by hand. 

Q, Should asbestos or anything contai^ting much 
rubber be used in packing a pump ? 

A. No ; asbestos hardens and is hard to remove, and 
rubber is likely to wear the stem too much. 

Q. How often should the air end of the pump be 
oiled? 

A. Modern practice demands that a pump in freight 
and passenger service should be oiled according to the 
work which they perform. The old method of oiling a 
pump only when it groans has been abandoned. 

Q, Some pumps have been rtin witJiottt ever 



138 Air-Brake Catechism. 

oiling the air end; hozu did the lower cylinder i^eceive 
its Inbrication ? 

A, From the swab which should always be placed on 
the piston "^od, and from the oily condensation that 
f vjilows down the rod. 

O. What kind of oil should be 7ised in the air 
end of the pump ? 

A. A good quality of valve oil gives the best results. 
The same oil that is used in the steam cylinder also 
gives best results in the air cylinder. 

Q, What care shotild be taken in starting a 
pttmp ? 

A. It should be started slowly so as to get a pressure 
of twenty or thirty pounds for the air piston to cushion 
upon, and the condensed steam should be gotten rid of 
before the pump attains any speed. Get the lubricator 
at work as soon as the pump is started. 

Q, Does any harm result fro7n oiling the air 
end of the ptmtp throngh the suctio7t ? 

A. Yes ; the suction holes are stopped up, the air 
valves gummed, and a generally dirty and ineffective 
pump results. 

Q. What trouble will cause the picmp to blow ? 

A. Packing rings in the main steam and reversing 
pistons leaking, slide valve 83, or a leaky reversing 
slide valve 72 are the main troubles. 

Q, What zvill cause a pump to pou7id? 

A. It will pound if it is not fastened firmly, if the 
air valves are stuck, or if there is too great a lift of air 
valves. Sometimes it will pound if the reversing plate is 
worn too much to reverse the pump quickly enough, or 
if the nuts on the pistons are loose. 



91-Inch Pump — Peculiarities, Troubles, Care. 139 

Q, What wotild be the effect if the top discharge 
valve zvere stuck open ? 

A. Main reservoir pressure would always be on top 
of the air piston ; this would cause a slow up-stroke and 
a quick down-stroke of the pump. No air would be 
drawn into the pump on the down-stroke. If the oil 
cock were opened on the pump, there would be a constant 
blow at that point as long as there was any pressure in 
the main reservoir, and no oil could be put into the air 
cylinder, as it would be blown out by the escaping air. 

Q, What would be the effect if the bottom dis- 
charge valve zvere sttick open? 

A. The same eflfect as above described, only on the 
opposite stroke of the pumpo In this case the oil cock 
would not tell us anything. 

Q, What would be the effect if the top discharge 
valve were stuck shut ? 

A. The pump would have a slow up-stroke, and 
unless the valve were forced from its seat, would stop or 
go slow enough to allow the pressure above the air 
piston to leak by the packing rings when the air press- 
ure above the piston became as high as the steam 
pressure. 

Q. What would be the effect if the botto^n dis- 
charge valve were stuck shut ? 

A. The same eflfect as just described, but on the 
opposite stroke. 

Q, What effect would follow if the top receiv- 
ing valve were stuck open ? 

A. Air would be drawn into the pump on the down- 
stroke and blown back to the atmosphere on the up- 
stroke. By placing the hand on the air inlet and 



140 Air-Brakb Catechism. 

watching the piston this trouble may be easily located. 
The pump would have a tendency to work faster on 
the up-stroke. 

Q, What effect would follow if the bottom 
receiving valve were stuck open ? 

A. The same as just described, but on the opposite 
stroke. 

Q. What would be the effect were the top re- 
ceiving valve stuck shut ? 

A. No air would be drawn into the pump on its 
down-stroke, and a partial vacuum being formed above 
the piston would cause the pump to have a slower 
down-stroke, as the vacuum would be working against 
the steam, and a faster up-stroke, as the vacuum would 
be working with the steam. 

Q. What W02ild be the effect if the bottoiit 
receiving valve were stuck to its seat ? 

A. The same as with the top receiving valve stuck 
shut, but on the opposite stroke. 

Q. How may a stuck valve usually be loosened? 
A. By tapping the valve cage lightly. 

Q, Hoiv will a pump work with dirt on the 
seat of a discharge valve ? 

A. The same as with a stuck receiving valve. The 
dirt on the valve allows main reservoir pressure to feed 
back into the pump and aid the steam on half the stroke, 
causing one stroke to be quick, and work against the 
steam on the other stroke, causing the pump to work 
slow. 

Q. How could we tell that a receiving valve 
was stuck shuty or a discharge valve open, besides by 
the erratic actio7t of the pttmp ? 



9i -Inch Pump — Peculiarities, Troubles, Care. 141 

A. The hand placed on the strainer would feel no 
air drawn in on one-half of the stroke. 

Q, How can we tell if the top discharge valve 
has a- poor seat ? 

A. Open the cock 98 (Fig. 35, Plate VII) and air will 
issue thence constantly if the dirt on the seat of the 
valve allows main reservoir pressure to feed back into 
the cylinder. 

Q. What caused some of the first gy^-i^ich 
pumps to stop ? 

A. The port^ (Fig*- Zl'^ Plate VII) did not extend quite 
far enough, and the wear of piston 77 (Fig. 35, Plate VII) 
would sometimes allow it to travel far enough to close 
port g entirely, and the pump could not be reversed. 

Q. How may a pump often be started if it 
stops ? 

A. By jarring lightly on the top head. 

Q. At what speed are good results obtained 
from a pump ? 

A. At about forty-five or fifty double strokes a minute 
on a level, but in handling air trains on a grade this 
speed should be increased according to work to be done. 

Q, Why is it best not to run a pump too slozv ? 

A. A pump running too slow will allow the air that 
is being compressed to leak by the packing rings 67 
(Fig. 36, Plate VII), and air will not be drawn in at the 
other end of the cylinder as it should. 

With sixty strokes to the minute, a pump will make 
more air than with the same number of strokes spread 
oyer three minutes. In the latter case the compressed 
air has too much time to leak by the air piston-packing 
rings. 



142 



^^m-BRAKE Catechism. 



^ TT ing table shows heat due to compres- 

^* , x\. depends upon the initial temperature. 

pump ^^f J^gmperature is due to the heat of compres- 
A. 

Temperature of air before compression 

compressed to 



ion 




60° 


90° 


15 


lbs. 


177° 


212° 


30 

45 
60 

75 




255° 

317° 

369° 
416° 


294° 
362° 

417° 
465° 


90 




455° 


507° 


105 
120 




490° 
524° 


545° 
580° 



EIGHT-INCH PUMP. 

Q, State the principal differ e7icc^ aside from that 
of size^ between the 8 and gh-inch pumps. 

A. It is in the valve motion; that of the gj4-mch 
pump is simpler, easier to get at for repair, and less 
likely to get out of order. 

Piston 23 (Fig. 38), called the reversing piston, is not 
found in the g^^-inch pump (Plate VII). 

O. Are the air ends of t lie pumps alike? 

A. In principle, yes ; but the location of the air 
valves and their size are somewhat different, although 
the operation is the same. 

0> What lift do the air valves of the S-inch 
pump have f 

A. The receiving should have -| and the discharge 
gViiich lift. 

Q As the stea^n e^iters the pump at X {Fig, j 8)^ 
where is it free to pass? 

A. Into chamber ;;/ and also through port h into a 
port not shown which leads to cavity e^ the reversing 
slide-valve chamber. 




43 
30 
31 

AIR IN'LEiT 

r^45 

TO MAIN^BESERVOLR 



52 52 ;^m INLET 

Fig. :;S.— 8-Inch Puivip. 



^33 
-'34 



8-Inch Pump. 147 

Q, Does this chamber always contain the same 
pressure as chamber m ? 
A. Always. 

Q. The pistons 7 {Fig* 38) are of uneqital size, 
and the upper piston 7 and piston 2j are the same 
size. What happens when steam enters chambers 
m and e with the reversing slide valve in its pres- 
ent position ? 

A. Steam is admitted through port a on top of pis ton 
23 ; this pressure balances the upward pressure on the 
top piston 7, and the pressure acting down on the small 
piston 7 causes all three pistons to travel down to the 
positions shown in the cut. 

Q, Explain the passage of steam with the valve 
motion in this position, 

A. Steam passes through small ports in bushing 
26 (Fig. 38), just above the small piston 7, underneath 
piston 10, forcing it up. At the same time the top end 
of the steam cylinder is connected with the atmosphere 
through the upper ports of bushing 25, the port /, as 
shown by the dotted lines, down through g and out at F. 

Q, When the piston moves tip so that the re- 
versing plate 18 strikes the lug n, the reversing 
slide valve 16 is forced up. What is done by rais- 
ing this valve ? 

A. The exhaust port in the slide valve connects 
port h leading to chamber d with port c which leads into 
the exhaust port /, and we have no pressure left on top 
of piston 23. 

Q, With no pressure acting down on piston 23 
{Fig. j8)^ what happens? 

A. On account of the greater area of the upper 
piston 7, both pistons 7 are raised. 



148 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. Explain the passage of steam with pistons y 
moved up. 

A. Steam from chamber m now passes through the 
lower ports of bushing 25 on top of the main piston 10, 
forcing it down, and the steam on the under side of 
piston 10 passes out of the lower holes of bushing 26 
into port/', and out through the exhaust port F. 

Q, When piston 10 reaches the bottom of its 
stroke, how is the pump reversed? 

A. The reversing plate 18 strikes the button at the 
end of the reversing stem 17 and moves the reversing 
slide valve 16 down to the position as shown in the cut. 

Q. What will caiise blows in this puinp ? 

A. Loose packing rings in the main steam piston 10, 
piston 23, or pistons 7, a bad seat on the reversing slide 
valve, or the top of stem 17 being a loose fit in the cap 
nut 20 (Fig. 38). 

Q, What are the other troubles of the pump ? 

A. They are in principle so nearly allied to those of 
the gj-inch pump that a study of them would be prac- 
tically a review of the work discussed in the study of 
that pump. In all cases of pump trouble, if one keeps 
in mind the principle of the operation of the pump, a 
little thought will sufltice to locate the defects. 



WESTINGHOUSE ^^ RIGHT AND LEFT-HAND" 
NINE AND ONE-HALF INCH PUMP. 

0. What is the difference between the nine and 
one-half inch pinnp shown in Fig. jg and the one 
shown in Figs, J5 and j6. 

A. The operation of the two pumps is exactly the 
same ; the parts are identical with the exception of the 
steam and exhaust connections, and the drain cock put 
in to drain any accumulation in port yi. 

Q, How do the steam and exhanst connections 
differ. 

i\. Both, as shown in Fig. 39, are extended through 
to the other side of the pump for convenience in piping 
in case it is desirable to locate the pump on the left side 
of the engine. 

Q, Explain the proper tcse of the connections as 
shozun in Fig, jg. 

A. A is the steam inlet and B the steam exhaust. 

O, What must be done if this pump should be 
changed to the right side of the engine ? 

A. Remove plug at C and fittings at A and exchange 
them ; the same should be done with the plug at D and 
fittings at B. C\\\\\ then be the steam inlet and D the 
steam exhaust. 

Q, Explain the operation of tins pump, 
A. A description of the operation of this pump 
w^ould be but a repetition of what is said in the chapter 
concerning the standard nine and one-half inch pump. 



I50 



Air-Brakk Catechism. 




Fig. 39.— Right and Lkft-Haxd Pump. 



WESTINGHOUSE ELEVEN-INCH PUMP. 

Q, What are the dimensions of cylinders and 
the stroke of the eleveji-uich as compared zuith the 
nine and one-half inch pump ? 

A. The nine and one-half inch pump is 9 y2^ x 9 ^^^ x 
10^^ stroke, as compared with w" x 11^^ x 12^^ stroke 
with the eleven-inch pump. 

Q. What are the co^nparative efficiencies of the 
two pumps f 

A. With a piston speed of 83 feet per minute and 
operating continuously, the efficiency of the eleven-inch 
pump is about 33 per cent, greater than the nine and 
one-half inch pump ; under the above conditions the 
larger pump will compress 40 cu. ft. of free air while 
the nine and one-half inch pump compresses 30 cu. ft. 
These figures, however, are for a very slow pump speed, 
and these capacities can, if desired, be greatly exceeded, 
but in the same proportion. 

Q. Explain the operation of the eleven-i^ich 
pump. 

A. Although some of the parts are slightly different 
in construction, the operation is the same as that of the 
nine and one-half inch pump described in the chapter 
beginning on page 132. 

Q, Name the different parts of the pump. 



15^ 



Air-Brakk Catechism. 



A. 

3649 
3650 
3653 
15^5 
3654. 
3660. 
1687. 
1590- 
1591- 
1589. 
1688. 
1689. 
1709. 
1706. 
1700. 

1701. 

1710. 

1595. 
3647. 
3645. 
1695- 

3646. 
1694. 

1696. 
2052. 
1707. 
1599. 

i'6oo. 

1705. 
1698. 
1708. 
3652. 
2682. 
2684. 
2683. 



3648. Ibphead. 
. Steam Cylinder. 
. Center Piece. 
. Air Cylinder. 
. Lower Head. 
. Steam Piston and Rod. 
Air Piston, complete. 
Piston Packing Ring. 
Piston-Rod Nut. 
Piston-Rod Jam Nut. 
Piston-Rod Cotter Pin. 
Reversing-Valve Plate. 
Reversing- Valve Plate Bolt 
Reversing-Valve Rod. 
Reversing Valve. 
Reversing -Valve-Chamber 

Bush. 
Reversin g -Valve-Chamber 

Valve-Stem Bush. 
Reversing -Valve-Chamber 

Cap. 
Main- Valve Bush. 
Main Valve. 

Large Main-Valve Piston. 
Large Main-Valve - Piston 

Packing Ring. 
Small Main- Valve-Piston. 
Small Main - Valve - Piston 

Packing Ring. 
Main- Valve Stem. 
Main- Valve-Stem Nut. 
Main Slide Valve. 
Right Main-Valve Cvlinder 

Head. 
Left Main-Valve Cylinder 

Head. 
Air Valve. 
Air- Valve Seat. 
Air-Valve Cage. 
Valve-Chamber Cap. 
Steam-Exhaust Stud. 
Steam-Exhaust L^nion Nut. 
Steam-Exhaust Union 

Swivel. 



3315. Pipe Bushing (i>^"xiX"). 

1885. One-inch Steam-Pipe Stud. 

1886. Governor Union Nut. 

1882. Air-Discharge Stud. 

1883. Air-Discharge Union Nut. 

1884. Air-Discharge Union 

Swivel. 

1702. Stuffing Box. 
1704. Stuffing- Box Nut. 

1703. Stuffing-Box Gland. 
19 1 6. Air-Cylinder Oil Cup. 

3661. Short" Tee-Head Bolt (34:// X 

2^4^ ) and Hexagon Nut. 

3662. Long Tee-Head Bolt (34^ ' x 

oH") ^^^ Hexagon Nut. 

1 7 1 1 . Upper Steam-C vlinder Gas- 

ket. 

1712. Lower Steam-C vlinder Gas- 

ket. 

1713. Upper Air Cylinder Gasket. 

1714. Lower Air Cylinder Gasket. 

1887. Drain Cock." 
2494. Air Strainer. 

1950, One-inch Steam-Pipe 
Sleeve. 

17 15. Left Main- Valve-Head Gas- 

ket. 

17 16. Right Main- Valve -Head 

Gasket. 
1759. Main-Valve-Head Bolt (>^" 

xi^'). 
191 9. Cylinder-Head Plug. 

2482. Packing and Cap-Nut 

Wrench. 
2485. Air-Valve-Seat Wrench. 

2483. Air-Valve-Cage Wrench. 
2481. Wrench for Nuts on Tee- 
Head Bolts. 

3269. Short Cap Screw {^" x 2"). 

3270. Long Cap Screw (^" x 2^ ' ). 
1900. One and One-half-inch Pipe 

Plug. 
3682. Two-inch Pipe Plug. 



Q. Tiuo sets of plugs are shown on either side 
of the steam cylinder ; of what nse are they f 

A. These plugs are for convenience in piping the 
pump. Phigs 1900 are at opposite ends of the same 



53 



he 
to 
lid 
a 
ist 
he 



ve 

ie, 
he 
ou 



PLATE VIIL— WESTINGHOUSE ELEVEN-INCH PUMP. 




Fig. 40. 



Fig. 41 



15^ 



A. 3bj 

3649. s 

3650. c 

3653. ^^ 

15^5. I 

3654. s 

3660. A 

1687. I 

1590. I 

1591. ^ 
1589. 



1688. I 



1689. I 

1709. I 

1706. r 

1700. I 



17OI. I 
1710. I 

1595. ^ 
3647. ^ 

3645. I 

1695. 1 

3646. ^ 
1694. ^ 

1696. I 
2052. T 

1707. I 
1599- ^ 

1600. ] 

1705. i 

1698. I 

1708. . 
3652. ^ 

2682. I 
2684. ^ 

2683. ^ 



A. 
pum] 



WkstinghoUvSE Elrven-Incii Pump. 153 

steam port. Plugs 3682 are at opposite ends of the 
exhaust port. The openings are used according to 
which side of the engine the pumps are located, and 
provide a means of making the piping simple, since a 
steam port opening is toward the cab and an exhaust 
opening toward the front end, if placed on either the 
eneineer's or fireman's side. 

Q. Do the nine and one-half inch pnnips have 
this provision? 

A. The one usually placed on the engineer's side, 
and known as the Right-Hand Pump, does not, while the 
Right and Left-Hand Pump, which may be used on 
either side, does. 



WESTINGHOUSE PUMP GOVERNORS. 

The accompanying pump governor cuts represent the 
new and the old style of governorSo 

Q, Explain the dtity of spring ^i {Fig, ^2), 

A. The tension of the spring 41 is regulated by the 
cap nut 40 and holds down the piston 43, which in 
turn holds the small pin valve on its seat. 

The fitting 45 is connected to main reservoir pressure 
if used with the G 6 brake valve, and with the train 
line if used with the D 8 brake valve. When the pressure 
entering at 45 and acting on the under side of the piston 
43 is greater than the tension of the spring 41, the 
piston is forced up, thus lifting the pin valve, to which 
arrow 42 points, from its seat. 

Q. What effect does tmseatiiig this pin valve 

Jiave ? 

A. It allows air pressure to reach the top of piston 
28 (Fig. 42), forcing it down and closing valve 26. 

Q. What effect does closi^ig valve 26 have ? 

i\. It shuts off the steam supply and stops the 
pump. 

Q. At t lie same time that air forces piston 28 
down, where else does it go and with what effect ? 

A. It passes out of the small relief port, at which the 
arrow 37 points, to the atmosphere. This leakage is 
sufficient to keep the pump working slowly, so that 
steam will not condense and be thrown out of the stack 
when the pump starts again. 



Westinghouse Pump Governors. 



155 



Q, What is effected by any reduction of the main 
reservoir pressure ? 




TO MATN. RESERVOTR 
CONNECTION 26 ON 
ENGlNEERi^S BRAKE ^ 
VALVE" 



r>~TO PUMP 



Fig. 42 .—Improved Pump Governor, 



156 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A. Any reduction of main reservoir pressure allows 
the spring 41 to force the pin valve to its seat, and what 
air still remains on top of piston 28 escapes through the 
relief port 37, and, with no pressure on top of piston 28, 
the spring 31 raises the piston 28 and valve 26, allowing 
steam from the boiler to reach the pump. 

Q. Of what use is the spring under the head 
of the pin valve? 

A. To hold the valve up when piston 43 is raised. 
Were it not for the spring, the pin valve w^ould remain 
seated. 

Q, If any air shotcld leak by piston 28, or any 
steam should leak by the stem of the valve 26 i^ito 
the cavity under piston 28^ hozu would it escape ? 

A. There is a port in the casing 32 connected to a 
drip pipe which leads to the atmosphere. 

Q. What effect wottld be noticed if this drip 
pipe became clogged with dirt or were frozen shuty 
when there was a leakage of steam 7ip tindvcr the 
governor piston ? 

A. Piston 28 could not be forced down, and the pump 
would not stop working until the main reservoir pressure 
was about equal to boiler pressure. 

O, What woitld be the effect if the release port 
37 ^^^S' 4^^ were closed by dirt ? 

A. The pump w^ould be very slow in starting to 
work after once stopping. 

O, Why ? 

A. Because, when the pin valve closed, the cavity 
above piston 28 would be filled with main reservoir 
pressure, which could escape only by leaking by the 
packing ring 29 and out to the atmosphere through 
the drip pipe. 



Westinghouse Pump Governors. 157 

Q, What effect woidd dirt on the seat of the 
pin valve have ? 

A. It would make a constant blow out of the relief 
port, and if air could leak in faster than it could get 
out of the relief port, the pump would either stop or 
w^ork very slowly, even if the pump throttle v>^ere wide 
open. 

Q, WJiy wottld it work slozuly ? 

A. Because the pressure on piston 28 may force the 
valve 26 partly shut and allow only a small amount of 
steam to reach the pump. If the leak were bad enough, 
the pump would be stopped entirely. 

Q, What effect would be noticed if the pin valve 
became gtimmed so that it wottld not seat centrally ? 

A. Air would pass down on piston 28, and the 
action of the pump w^ould be the same as just described, 
with dirt on the seat of this valve. 

Q. What would be the effect if the casing in 
which the governor piston works should become 
badly worn, and a worn ring 2 g were replaced with 
a new one without trtcin^ the casino f 

A. When piston 28 was forced down a little farther 
than usual, it might stick, causing the pump to stop. 
A jar on the governor might start the pump. 

Q, What is the difference between the improved 
f and the i-inch governors ? 

A. Their operation is identical, but there is a dif- 
ference in size, as one is used with the 8 and the other 
with the 9|-inch pump. 

Q. Explain the operation of the old pump 
governor, 

A. It is the same as that of the improved governor, 
•excepting that, after the pin valve is closed, the air in 



158 



Air-Brakk Catechism, 



tlie chamber above the piston, instead of escaping to the 
atmosphere through a relief port, passes by the packing- 
ring 24 and out to the atmosphere through a drip pipe 
connected to the port, shown by the dotted lines in the 
chamber under the piston. 




TO BQJLER 



Fig. 43— O1.D Styi,e Pump Governor. 



Q. Are the troubles about the same with the 
two governors ? 

A. Yes; but there was much trouble with the 



Westinghousk Pump Governors. 159 

diaphragm 19 of the old governor which is unknown 
with the new. 

Q. Why was this ? 

A. Because this governor was used chiefly with the 
D 8 valve, and train-line pressure operated the governor. 
With this valve on lap, boiler pressure would be com- 
pressed in the main reservoir, and when this high press- 
ure was thrown into the train line to release brakes, the 
diaphragm 19 would be forced up so high it would 
buckle. 

Q, What effect would this have? 

A. It would destroy the sensitiveness of the gover- 
nor, and the pump would be stopped in a very erratic 
manner. The train-line pressure would sometimes be 
too high and at others too low. 

Q, How was this defect remedied in the im- 
proved governor ? 

A. By inspecting the cut of the new governor it 
will be seen that the diaphragm can raise only a very 
little distance when it seats against a brass ring, thus 
doing away with the chance of its buckling. 

Q. Is the new governor more sensitive than the 
old? 

A. Yes, because instead of one diaphragm, like 19 
(Fig. 43) in the old governor, there are two thin dia- 
phragms in the new. 

Q. How much reductioii will cause a governor 
of the improved type to start the pump ? 
A. About half a pound. 

Q, Why was the long slot placed 171 the stem 16 
of the old governor ? 

A. The governor used to make a buzzing sounds 
and slotting the stem remedied this trouble. 



i6o Air-Brakb Catechism. 

Q, Does this governor keep the pwnp working 
slowly after ftill pressure is obtained? 
A. No, as there is no relief port. 



THE SWEENEY COMPRESSOR. 

Q, What is the object of the Sweeney device ? 

A. To recharge a main reservoir quickly in descend- 
ing very heavy grades when the air pressure is low. 

Q, Explain the parts. 

A. It consists of a pipe running from the steam 
chest to the main reservoir. In the pipe there is a cut- 
out cock, a safety valve, and a non-return check. 

Q, How is it operated ? 

A. By turning the cut-out cock and reversing the 
engine when steam is shut off. The main cylinders 
and pistons act as compressors, and compressed air is 
forced into the steam chest and thence through the pipe 
connection to the main reservoir. 

Q, What is the objection to this device ? 

A. It is extremely handy in case of emergency, such as 
low pressure or the refusal of a pump to work. The 
objection to it is, that smoke, gas, and heat forced into 
the main reservoir burn out gaskets and get the brake 
system very dirty. 



THE WATER BRAKE. 

Q, What is the Water or La Chatelier Brake f 

A. It is a brake by means of which the equivalent 

effect of reversing an engine is produced ; that is, the 

back pressure on the pistons acts through the pins the 

same as when using steam. 

Q. Is zuater actually used at the point where the 
work of retardation is accomplished f 

A. Xo, it is then in the form of wet steam. 

Q, Where does the water used come from ? 

K, It is taken from the boiler just above the crown 
sheet. The pressure from above being removed as soon 
as it leaves the boiler it flashes into wet steam. The 
compression to which it is subjected in the cylinders 
produces heat that also tends to change any water into 
steam. 

Q, Is the lubricator shut off . luJie^i the zuater 
brake is in use f 

A. No, it should be kept in operation the same as 
when using steam. 

Q. What special care should be taken when 
using steam after the use of the zuater brake lias 
been discontinued? 

A. To avoid throwing water out of the stack steam 
should not be used until the water has had ample time 
to work out. 

Q. Can a water brake be used on either a simple 
or compound engine ? 



Thk Water Brake. 163 

A. Yes ; Fig. 44 shows its application to a simple 
and Figs. 45 and 46 to a compound engine. 

WATER BRAKE ON SIMPLE ENGINE. 

Q, What part does the water play after it takes 
the fonn of wet steam f 

A. As the pistons move back and forth the wet 
steam in the exhaust cavities (Fig. 44) is drawn into 
the cylinders. 

Q. How does it escape from the cylinders f 
A. Through the cylinder cocks. 

Q, If it were not for the wet steam being drazun 
into the cylinders wheri the engine is reversed^ luhile 
using the zuater brake ^ what would happen f 

A. Cinders and smoke would be drawm into the cyl- 
inders and in a short time they would be cut and ruined. 

Q. Hoiu should a7i e^igineer proceed to put the 
water brake i7i use? 

A. The cylinder cocks should first be opened and 
should remain open as long as the water brake is in use ; 
the reverse lever should be moved back of the center 
the desired amount and the globe valve (Fig. 44) 
should be opened immediately. 

Q, When should the water brake be put in use? 
A. When the train is moving slowly. 

Q At how fast a speed is it practical to operate 
a zuater brake ? 

A. It is not generally used at speeds in excess of 14 
to 22 miles per hour. 

Q. How far should the reverse lever be 7noved 
back of the center? 

A. This depends upon the amount of w^ork that is 



164 



Air-Brake Catechism, 




Fig. 44. — Water Brake on Simple Engine. 



The Water Brake. 165 

required. The farther back the lever is moved the 
greater the power. 

Q Hoiu much should the globe valve {^Fig. ^y) 
be open to obtain the right amount of steam in the 
cylinders f 

A. It should be adjusted until the steam issuing 
from the cylinder cocks is a dense white. 

Q, What will be the character of escaping stearn 
at the cylinder cocks if too little water is being itsed? 
A. It will be a light blue in color. 

Q, How can it be told if too 7nuch water is being 
used? 

A. Water will be thrown out of the stack. This is 
especially noticeable if the lever is very near the center. 

Q. What is the puipose of the ilj2-inch hole 
drilled in the 12 x jf 8-inch tee^ as indicated {Fig> 
44) ? 

A. To permit any condensation to escape. 

Q, In erecting the piping what special care 
should be observed? 

A. Care should be exercised to locate the Yz' x ^^^ 
tee in the center to insure the same amount of water 
reaching each cylinder ; otherwise the tendency would 
be for one side of the locomotive to furnish more 
retarding power than the other. 

THE BALDWIN WATER BRAKE FOR BALDWIN 

COMPOUNDS. 

Q, Does zuhat has been said in general concern- 
ing the water brake for a simple engi7ie also refer 
to the Baldiuiji • Water Brake f 

A. Yes, and with this as with the other, the holding 



1 66 



Air-Brake Catechism. 







Rod to cab, to operate 
back pressure valve ^ 




Ch atelier valve pipe ' 

j from Cylinder exhaust • 

passage to cab 



Fig. 45. — Baldwin Water Brake for Compound Engine. 



The Water Brake. 167 

power is due to the engine being run reversed, but in 
full reverse position, the water being used as herein 
explained. 

Q, Explain the cuts {Figs, ^j and 46) referring 
to the zuater brake for compou7ids. 

A. Fig. 45 is a side view of the front end and Fig. 46 
is an end view. When water is permitted to enter pipe 
A (Figs. 45 and 46) it finally reaches a a^ where it enters 
the exhaust passages. D (Fig. 46) is a gate or back 
pressure valve, by means of which the engineer can 
regulate the amount of back pressure against which the 
pistons will operate. ^ is a safety valve located in the 
live steamways to permit any back pressure above a 
given amount to escape. C (Figs. 45 and 46) are air 
inlet valves, which when necessary permit air to enter 
the cylinders and prevent smoke and cinders from being 
drawn in. B (Fig. 45) is a hinged lid used to close the 
exhaust nozzle. 

Q, How is the brake put to work? 

A. The initial steps are the same as with the water 
brake on simple engines : open cylinder cocks, put 
reverse lever in extreme backward position, and open 
the water valve. The exhaust nozzle lid B should also 
be closed, and the air inlet valves C be opened. 

Q. Trace the passage of the water or steam. 

A. As air enters the inlet valve C (Fig. 45) it 
mingles with the hot water and steam entering the 
exhaust cavities from ^, a. From here it passes by the 
piston valve G and enters the low pressure cylinder. 
When the movement of the piston in the low pressure 
cylinder is reversed this combination of steam, water 
and air, excepting that which escapes at the cylinder 
cocks, is compressed while the other end of the cylinder 
is being filled. The steam being compressed passes by 
piston G and on, as indicated (Fig. 46), into the opposite 



i68 



Air-Brake: Catechism, 




Fig. 46. — BA1.DWIN Water Brake for Compound Exgixb. 



The Water Brake. 169 

end of the high-pressure cylinder H, On the return 
stroke of the piston it is forced from the high-pressure 
cylinder by the piston valve and on into the steam pipe 
J J^ where what does not escape at the back pressure 
valve D accumulates. The safety valves E take care 
of any pressure in excess of a safe amount. 

Q. Hozu is the water brake operated on a two 
cylmder compound of the Schenectady typef 

A. Generally two water pipes are used on account 
of the vast difference in the sizes of the two cylinders, 
and the exhaust valve between the receiver and the low 
pressure exhaust passage is left closed while using the 
water brake. Otherwise the water brake is used practi- 
cally the same as on a simple engine. 



WESTINGHOUSE WHISTLE SIGNAL. 

Q. What form of signal was used before the 
C07npressed air signaling apparatus was invented? 

A. The old bell rope and gong signal, such as is now 
used on freight trains. 




NOTE 

THE ABOVE DIAGRAM IS SIMPLY ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE METHOD 
OF ABBANfilNa THE COMPflESStO AIR TRAIN SI8NALIMQ APPLIANCES, 
AMD WAV BE. HOOtftU AS THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE ENGINE DEMANDS. 



Fig. 47. — SiGNAi, Equipment for Engine. 



Q, Do all i^oads use the air signal t7i passenger 
service f 

A. Not all, but most roads do. 

Q. What parts of the signali^ig apparatus are 
found on the engine ? 



Wkstinghouse Whistle Signal. 171 

A. The strainer, the reducing valve (Fig. 52 or 54), 
the whistle valve (Fig. 51), the whistle (Fig. 53), and 
the pipe connections as shown in Fig. 47. 

Q. What parts are found on the car f 

A. The discharge valve (Fig. 50), the signal cord 
running the length of the car, and the signal-pipe con- 
nections as shown in Fig. 48. 

Q, Where is the discharge valve {Fig* 50) icsical- 
ly located ? 

A. As shov/n in Fig. 48, although it is sometimes 
found inside the car over the door. 

Q, Why is it better placed outside f 
A. When it is so placed the noise of the discharge 
will not affect nervous people. 

Q, How does the car discharge valve work ? 

A. The signal cord is attached to the valve in the 
Tiole of 5 (Fig. 50) ; when the cord is pulled, valve 3 is 
forced from its seat, allowing whistle-line pressure to 
escape to the atmosphere. 

Q. What is the trouble when there is a constant 
leak from the discharge valve ? 

A. There is dirt on the seat of valve 3 (Fig. 50). 

Q, Where is the signal valve {Fig* 5/) located? 

A. In the cab, where it will not be subjected to 
severe heat or cold. 

Q, Where are the reducing valves {Figs. ^2 and 
^f) usually placed? 

A. It was formerly customary to locate them out- 
side, next to the main reservoir, but now good prac- 
tice locates them inside the cab where thev cannot 
freeze in winter. 



172 



Air-Brake Catechism 



Q. Which valve is now being se7it out with all 
new eqtiipme7it ? 

A. The valve represented by Fig. 52, as this is the 
latest, although there are still many like Fig. 54 in use. 

Q. What is the dttty of these valves ? 

A. To maintain a constant pressure on the whistle 
line. 




Fig. 48.— Location oi? Signal, Apparatus on Coach. 

Q. Explain the action of the reducing valve 
{Fig 52). 

A. It works exactly like the old style train-line 
governor (Fig. 28), of the F 6 valve already explained. 

Q, Of what tcse is the pkig valve in the upper 
left-hand corner ? 

A. To cut out main reservoir pressure in case we 
wish to take the reducer apart. 



Westixghouse Whistle Signal. 



173 



Q. What is the object of the an strainer {Fig. 

49) -^ 

A. To keep any foreign matter from entering the 
reducing valve or signal system, where it may occasion 
an improper response of the signals. 

Q. Of luJiat does this strainer consist? 

A. Of the body 8 (Fig. 49), perforated brass discs 3, 




PIPE TAP 

Fig. 49. — Air Strainer on Engine. 



and the space between these perforated plates is filled 
with curled hair. 

Q. Has this str airier ei^er been used to fulfill an 
office other than as described above ? 

A. Yes ; a tee is sometimes inserted between the 
strainer and the reducing valve. A branch of the tee 
is then piped to the pump governor, and the governor 
performs the double duty of keeping foreign matter 
both from the signal system and the pump governor, 

Q, Is any material other than curled hair ever 
used to fill in the space between the perforated 
plates 3 {Fig. 49)/ 

A. Yes ; sponge has been used for this purpose, but 
the results obtained were not satisfactory. The hair 
seems to collect the dirt better and it is much easier to 
clean than the sponge, as it permits of a freer separation. 



174 



Air-Brakk Catechism. 



Q. Explain the action of the old reducing valve 
{Fig. S4\ 

A. The top spring has a tension determined by the 
pressure to be carried on the whistle line. This spring 
holds piston 6 down as long as the tension of the spring 
is greater than the pressure underneath the rubber 
diaphragm 7. 




Fig. 50.— Car Discharge Vai^vKo 

As long as the piston is down, valve 5 is held from its 
seat, allowing main reservoir pressure to feed in as 
indicated. It passes by valve 5, up under the piston, 
and into the signal line as indicated, until the pressure 
on the whistle line and underneath the diaphragm 7 is 
greater than the tension of the spring over the piston 
6, when the spring is compressed, allowing piston 6 to 
travel up, and spring 10 raises valve 5 to its seat, 
shutting off the further passage of air from the main 
reservoir to the whistle line. 

Q, Where is the whistle {Fig. S3) located ? 
A. In the cab, as near the engineer as convenient. 
Q, To what is it connected ? 



Westinghouse Whistle Sigxai., 175 

A. To a pipe which leads from the signal valve as 
indicated (Fig. 51). 

Q, What is its use ? 

A. As the signal or whistle valve (Fig. 51) operates, 
the air leaving this valve escapes throngh the whistle 
(Fig. 53). The blast signals the engineer. 

Q, Where does the air come from that supplies 
the signal system f 

A. From the main reservoir on the engine. 

Q. Explain the passage of the air from the 
main reservoir through the signal system. 

A. It first passes from the main reservoir (Fig. 47) 
throngh the strainer and reducing valve. After leaving 
the reducing valve there is a tee in the pipe, one branch 
of which leads to the signal valve (Fig. 51) and the 
other back into the train. Under each car (Fig. 48) 
there is a strainer in a tee, and a branch of the whistle 
line goes to the discharge valve (Fig. 50). 

Q, Explain the operation of the signal valve 
{Fig^ 5/) i7i chargi^ig. 

A. After the air passes from the main reserv^oir and 
throngh the reducing valve, it is free to go back into the 
train and also enter the signal vah^e at K It then 
passes through the contracted port d into cavity A on 
top of the rubber diaphragm 12, and around through 
port c. The lower half of the stem 10 is three sided, so 
that the air can pass up to where the stem looks to be 
tight in the bushing 9. This joint is not tight, but 
sufficiently so to allow the air to feed by into chamber 
B very slowly. The reducing valve is adjusted to forty 
pounds, and if we wait a short time the forty pounds 
will equalize on both sides of the diaphragm 12 ; that is, 
there will be forty pounds in each chamber A and j9, as 
there is also throughout the whistle line on the train. 



X76 



Air-Brakb Catechism. 



Q. What does the conductor do if lie wishes to 
signal the engineer ? 

A. He pulls the signal cord in the car, 

Q, What is effected by this ? 

A. It makes a sudden reduction of whistle-line press- 
ure through the car discharge valve (Fig. 50). 

Q, What IS the effect? 




TO SIGNAL PIPE 



X \j^ TO WHISTLE 

Fig. 51.— Signal Vai.ve. 

A. This starts a reduction wave throughout the 
Avhistle line, and in the signal valve it is first felt in 
chamber A^ on top cf diaphragm 12. The pressure in 
chamber B^ being unable to equalize quickly with that 
in chamber A^ on account of the snug fit of the stem 10 
in bushing q, is now greater than the pressure in cham- 
ber A, The diaphragm 12 and the stem 10 attached to 
it are lifted, uncovering the port in the bushing 7. The 
stem is lifted sufiSciently to allow air from chamber B 
and the air coming through port c to pass out at e and 



Westinghouse Whistle Signal. 



^11 



through the pipe to the whistle (Fig. 53), causing a 
blast as long as the stem 10 is off its seat. 

The same wave reduction that started the signal valve 
into operation also opened the reducing valve (Fig. 52 or 
54) to allow main reservoir pressure to supply the whistle 
line. 




Fig. 52.~-Improvkd Reducing Valvk. 

A wave of increased pressure now takes the place of 
the reduction wave, and air passing into chamber A of 
the signal valve forces the diaphragm 12 down, causing 
the whistle to cease blowing. 

Q. How long must we wait bcfo7^e again trying 
to put the signal valve in operatioii ? 

A. Until the pressures have had time to equalize in 
chambers A and B (Fig. 51). 



178 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



Q. How many seconds should we wait ? 
A. Usually two at least, and three is better. 

Q. Give a rule by which we can pull the whistle 
signal cord in the car and gain the best results. 




Fig. 53.— Sign ai, Whisti^e:. 

A. When pulling the cord, make an exhaust of one 
second, and then wait three seconds to allow the whistle 
to cease blowing and the pressures to equalize through- 
out the signal system before making another reduction. 

Q. In piilli7ig the signal cord, what should al- 
ways be bor7ie in mind ? 

i\. That it is not the amount of reduction but the 
suddenness that causes the whistle to blow. 



PECULIARITIES AND TROUBLES OF THE 
SIGNAL SYSTEM. 

Q. If 110 air gets into the zvhistle line when an 
engine is coupled to a train^ and we know that the 




TO MAIN RESERVOIR 

F1G.54.— O1.D Styi,e Reducing Vai^vk. 

cocks in the signal line stand properly and the hose 
are in order, what shotild we look at first ? 

A. The plug cock in the reducing valve (Fig. 52) ; 



i8o Air-Bra KB Catechism. 

or, if the weather is cold and the reducer is outside, it 
may be frozen. 

Q. What else might cause this trouble with the 
new reducer {Fig, ^2) ? 

A. It may be that the small taper port in the re- 
ducer (Fig. 52) , where the main reservoir pressure enters, 
is plugged shut or the strainer may be blocked. 

Q. What will close this port ? 

A. Oil from the air end of the pump and the corro- 
sion from the inside of the pipes. 

Q, What is the trouble if the signal cord is 
pulled in the car and no air issues from the car dis- 
charge valve ? 

A. The cut-out cock (Fig. 48) in the saloon has 
very likely been closed. 

Q, Give conditions that would result in the air 
whistle not responding. 

A. A dirty strainer in the tee under the car where 
the branch pipe to the car discharge valve couples to the 
main signal line ; the strainer in the car discharge valve, 
as used in the old equipment, being dirty ; port d (Fig. 
51) being stopped up ; a too loose fit of stem 10 (Fig. 51) 
in bushing 9 ; a baggy diaphragm 12 (Fig. 51), or a hole 
in it ; the bowl of the whistle (Fig. 53) being closed with 
scouring material, or the bell of the whistle being im- 
properly adjusted ; a reduction that took enough air 
from the whistle line but did not take it fast enough, or, 
as explained before, the reducer might be frozen. 

Q. Why would the whistle not respond if port 
d {Fig. 5/) were closed? 

A. No air could reach the whistle « 

Q, Why, with a loose fit to stem 10 {Fig. 5/) in 
bushing g would the whistle not respond f 



Signal System— Peculiarities and Troubles 183 

A. If the reduction were not made sufficiently quick 
with the car discharge valve, especially on a long train, 
the friction of the air passing through the pipe would 
tend to decrease the suddenness of the reduction, so that, 
when the wave reached the signal valve, the reduction 
might be so weak that, if stem 10 were a loose fit in 
bushing 9, the air in chambers A and B might equalize 
without raising diaphragm 12 (Fig. 51). 

Q. Why would a baggy or stretched diaphragm 
12 {Fig. 5/) cause the whistle not to respond? 

A. When the reduction is made on the signal line, 
a reduction is made in chamber A of the signal valve, 
leaving the pressure in chamber B greater. If the 
diaphragm is bagged, the pressure in chamber B lifts the 
diaphragm, but the stem 10 is not moved. 

Q. What causes this diaphragm to bag ? 

A. The use of poor rubber, or oil from the pump 
working through on the rubber, causing it to decay. 
A diaphragm is occasionally found with a hole rotted 
through it, allowing chambers A and B to be directly 
connected. 

Q. What may cause a whistle to respond only 
once when the conductor pulls the cord twice ? 

A. He may have pulled the cord the second time 
before the whistle stopped blowing the first, thus getting 
one long blow, or he may have made the second dis- 
charge before the pressures in chambers A and B had 
become equalized. 

Q. What will happen if dirt gets on the scat of 
valve 4 {Fig. ^2), or the correspo7iding valve in 
Fig. 54f 

A. The valves cannot close, and we will get main 
reservoir pressure of ninety pounds on the whistle line. 

Q. What ejfect has this ? 



1 82 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A. The whistle is likely to blow, especially on a 
short train, when the brakes are released ; the air whistle 
on the engine will screech when used ; and, if the stem 
lo in the signal valve is a little loose in bushing 9 (Figc 
51), the whistle is likely to blow two or three times 
for one reduction at the car discharge valve ; there will 
be a stronger exhaust from the car discharge valve 
than usual, and hose are more likely to burst. 

Q, Why is the wl lis tie likely to blow whe7i the 
brakes are released, if there is main reservoir press- 
ure on the whistle line ? 

A. Because to release brakes the main reservoir 
pressure is thrown into the train line. This makes the 
pressure in the main reservoir less than that in the 
whistle line, and, on account of the dirt on the seat of the 
valve 4 (Fig. 52), the whistle-line pressure feeds back into 
the main reservoir, and the reduction thus made on the 
signal line causes the air whistle to blow. 

Q. Why^ with this trouble, is the whistle 7nore 
likely to soimd on an engine alone than with a trainy 
when the brakes are released? 

A. With an engine alone there is but a small volume 
of air on the signal line, and the signal-line pressure 
feeding back into the main reservoir would cause a more 
sudden reduction than if the signal line were longer and 
the volume greater, as on a train. 

Q. Why will the air whistle on the engine 
screech when used ? 

A. Because the bell is adjusted to be used with only 
a forty-pound pressure instead of ninety. 

Q. Why is the whistle likely to blow two or 
three times with one reduction from the car discharge 
valvCy if 7nain reservoir pressure is on the whistle 



SiGNAi. System — Peculiarities and Troubles 183 

line and the stem 10 is loose in bushing g {Fl^- 
5/) of the signal valve ? 

A. Because a reduction at the car discharge valve 
starts the signal yalve in operation, and the reducer can- 
not feed air into the whistle line properly to cause the 
signal valve to close until the signal-line pressure is 
below forty pounds. The tendency for the pressure to 
fluctuate in chambers A and B, due to the loose fit of the 
stem ic, causes the diaphragm to bounce and the whistle 
to respond two or three times. 

Q, If an engineer wishes to know how mnch 
pressure he has on his signal liiie, and he has no 
gatige with which to test it, how can he determine 
it? 

A. Shut oflF the pump and open the bleed cock on 
the main reservoir, then get up in the cab and watch 
the red hand. When the whistle blows, the red hand 
represents a trifle less pressure than is being carried on 
the whistle line. 

Q, Why does the whistle blow ? 

A. Because, when the main reservoir pressure is 
drained below the pressure on the whistle line, the press- 
ure feeds from the whistle line back into the main 
reservoir, causing a reduction of the whistle-line pressure, 
and this usually causes the whistle to blow. 

Q.. What is likely to make a whistle give one 
long blast ? 

A. A tight fit in bushing 9 of stem 10 (Fig. 51). 

Q. Why was the new reducer gotten up ? 

A. To have one that would be more sensitive than 
the old one and would feed leaks more promptly, thus 
doing away with the chance of the whistle being blown 
by a small leak. 



184 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q, What will cause a whistle to sing constantly ? 
A. Dirt on the seat of stem 10 in bushing 7 (Fig. 51). 

Q, Why may jars cause a whistle to blow ? 

A. Oil baking upon diaphragm 12 of the signal 
valve makes it rigid, and a jar will sometimes shake the 
stem 10 (Fig. 51) from its seat. 

Q, What would we do to increase or decrease the 
pressure on the whistle line with the new reducer ? 

A. Screw up on the bottom nut to increase it, and 
down to decrease it. 

Q. What zuith the old reducer ? 

A. Put in a stiflfer spring or put a washer under the 
old one. 

Q. What are the two holes for in the upper 
part of the old reducer ? 

A. To allow any air to escape to the atmosphere 
that gets by the diaphragm 7. 



WESTINGHOUSE HIGH-SPEED BRAKE. 

Q, Why zuas the mtrodiiction of the high-speed 
drake necessary f 

A. The call by the traveling public for higher train 
speed rendered it necessary to insure safety of lives and 
property. 

Q, How mtich viore efficient is it than the 
ordinary qtcick-action brake f 
A. About thirty per cent. 

Q, What class of trains tises this brake ? 

A. It is being introduced very generally in both 
local and through passenger train service on the princi- 
pal trunk lines. 

Q. What perce7itage of braking poiuer to the 
light weight of a passenger car is generally nsed 
with the ordi^iary quick-action brake f 

A. Ninety per cent. 

Q, What percentage is used with the high-speed 
brake ? 

A. About one hundred and thirty per cent, if the 
cylinder pressure is figured as 88 pounds, and ninety 
per cent, with a 6o-pound cylinder pressure. 

Q. How can such a high braking pozver be used 
without flattening wheels f 

A. Because it is only used when the train is moving 
at very fast speed, and an automatic reducing valve gradu- 
ally reduces the brake-cylinder pressure, so that when 
the speed of the train has been slackened, the brake- 
cylinder pressure has also been gradually reduced to the 



1 86 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

6o-pound pressure limit as used with the ordinary quick- 
action brake. 

Q, Why is it safe to use a higher br^akvng power 
on wheels when the traiii is run7iing fast ? 

A. Because the faster the wheels turn, the greater is 
the inertia of the wheels, which the friction of the 
brake shoes has to overcome before they will cease 
revolving. The Westinghouse-Galton tests, made in 
England in 1878, proved that the faster the tread of 
the wheel moved against the brake shoe, the less the 
friction between the two. As the speed decreases the 
friction increases, the friction between the wheel and 
the rail remaining about constant, regardless of the 
speed of the train. 

Q, What t rain-line and aiixilia7y pressures a^^e 
ca7^ried with the high-speed brake f 
A. One hundred and ten pounds. 

Q, At what p7'essnre do the aiixiliary and 
brake cylinder equalize zuhen the brake is full set 
in emergency^ using one hundred a7id ten pounds 
auxiliajy pressure f 

i\. About eighty-eight pounds. 

Q. What reduces this eighty-eight pounds to 
sixty pounds^ the safe pressure for slow speeds f 

A. The automatic reducing valve shown in the 
accompanying cut (Fig. 55). 

Q. Explain the action of the reduci^ig valve, 

A. When air is in the brake cylinder it is free to 
reach the top of piston 4 of the reducing valve. 

As long as the tension of the spring 1 1 is greater than 
the brake-cylinder pressure on top of the piston, the 
slide valve 8 remains in the position shown. 

When the brake is full set, the pressure in the cylin- 



Westinghouse High-Speed Brake. 187 




1/2 PIPE TAP ^>10 BRAKE CYLINDER 



I^iG. 55. — High-Speed Automatic Reducing VaIvVE. 



1 88 x\ir-Brake Catechism. 

der being greater than the tension of the spring, the 
piston 4 is forced down and carries the slide valve with 
it, thus opening port b into port a^ allowing brake- 
cylinder pressure to escape to the atmosphere. 

The apex of the triangular port b points up. If the 
slide valve 8 is drawn down a little, as iw a service 
application, port b has a wide opening into port a^ 
allowing cylinder pressure to escape quickly. The high 
cylinder pressure in emergency forces piston 4 down 
full stroke, and cylinder pressure escapes slowly through 
the small end of port b. As cylinder pressure lessens, 
spring 1 1 raises piston 4 and slide valve 8, opening port 
b wider, thus releasing air faster ; the slow exhaust 
ensues with a high, and quick exhaust with low train 
speeds. Spring 11 is adjusted to sixty pounds on pas- 
senger cars and sixty on engines and tenders. 

Q, What is necessary to viake a high-speed 
brake out of the present qitick-action eqicipmentf 
A. Simply the addition of the reducing valve. 

Q, What change has to be made on engines ? 

A. A duplex pump governor is added, two train-line 
governors are used, and reducing valves are connected 
to the tender and driver brake cylinders. 

Q, Why are two train-li^ie aiid a duplex pump 
governor used? 

A. Only two governors are used at a time. They 
are so arranged wdth cut-out cocks that the engine may 
be used with the ''high-speed'' brake or with the 
ordinary quick-action brake. 

Q, At the same speeds^ in how mucJi less distance 
ca7i a stop be made with the High-Speed tha^i with 
the ordinary Quick-Action Brake f 

A. About 30 per cent. 



Westixghouse High-Speed Brake. 



189 




POSITION OF PORTS 
EMERGENCY STOP 

Fig. 56. 



POSITION OF PORTS 
SERVICE STOP 
PRESSURE EXCEEDING 60 POUNDS 
IN BRAKE CYLINDER 



FiG. 57, 




POSITION OFPORTS^ 
RELEASE 

Fig. 58. 

Cross Sections Showing Upper Part of High-Speed 
Reducing Valve in its Different Positions. 



190 Air-Brakb Catechism. 

Q. With an auxilimy reserz'ozr pressure of 
no pounds^ is a higher cylinder pressure developed 
tha7i when yo pounds is used if a 5, 10 or i^-pound 
service reduction of train-line pressure is made? 

A. With the customary piston travel of from six to 
eight inches the same cylinder pressure would result in 
either case. 

Q. Would the cylinder pressure developed be the 
same with a gradual train-li^ie reduction of 22 
potmds ? 

A. No, the cylinder pressure would be greater when 
using a train-line pressure of no pounds. 

Q, Give a rule which covers this point. 

A. As long as train-line reductions are not continued 
after the equalization point between the cylinder and 
reservoir when the 70-pound train-line pressure has been 
reached, the same cylinder pressure will result in either 
case. If, however, the reductions are continued beyond 
this point, a gain is made when using the higher pres- 
sure, and it can be raised until such time as the High- 
Speed Reducing Valve operates to discharge air to the 
atmosphere. 

Q. Why is it that the cyli^ider pressure would 
be the same i7i either case with a service reductio7i of 
10 pounds when ernployijig either a yo or no-pound 
pressure ? 

A. By making the proper calculations it will be 
found that in either case the same number of cubic 
inches of free -air has passed to the brake cylinder. In 
other words, the same number of cubic feet of free air 
are used by reducing the auxiliary reservoir pressure 
from 70 to 60 as from no to 100 pounds. 

A 20-pound reduction, using a 70-pound train-line 
pressure, would equalize the reservoir and cylinder 



Westinghouse High-Speed Brake. 



IQi 




192 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

pressures at 50 pounds with a certain piston travel ; 
using the iio-pound train-line pressure and making a 
20-pound reduction would give a cylinder pressure of 50 
pounds, but there would still be 90 pounds in the 
auxiliary reservoir ; hence, with a further reduction of 
train-line pressure the triple valve would permit more 
reservoir pressure to pass to the brake cylinder, thus 
increasing its pressure. 

Q. Do the brakes apply any quicker 171 service 
with the High-Speed than with the Quick-Action 
Brake f 

A. Yes. 

Q. Explai^i the a^iswer to the last question. 

A. On account of the higher pressure used the air 
passes through the ports quicker from the auxiliary 
reservoir to the brake cylinder. Practically the same 
effect is produced as is done by increasing the boiler 
pressure of an engine, which added pressure produces a 
corresponding quickness of action. It is this quickness 
of action which has created the general impression that 
a light reduction of train-line pressure produces a 
greater cylinder pressure when using a no-pound 
instead of a 70-pound pressure. This is a mistaken 
idea, except as there might be a very slight difference 
because of the piston moving out and closing the leakage 
groove quicker with the high than with the low 
pressure. 

Q, Which method produces the best i^esults in 
making station stops with the High-Speed Brake f 

A. The two application method, the same as should 
be used when employing the 70-pound train-line pressure. 

Q. If^ when using the no-pound trai7i-li7ie 
pressure^ a suddcji reduction of pressure is 7nade and 
the brake valve handle is returned to lap^ at what 



Westinghouse High-Speed Brake. 



193 



I 



I 



"1 



§ 

o 

o 

::> 
o 




I 



en 

W 

< 

pq 

w 

o 
o 

c 

h-l 

H 
en 

W 



o 
> 

a 

w 
u 

M 

Tin 
pa 
> 

M 
fH 

o 
u 



o 
o 

M 



194 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

pressui^e will the train-line auxiliary and brake 
cylinder equalize ? 

x\. Approximately 88 pounds. 

Q, The triple valve is now in emergency position 
and the auxiliary and cyli^ider pressures are escaping 
to the atmosphere through the reduci^ig valve ^ which 
closes whe7i the pressure in it has been depleted to 60 
pounds. The trai7i4i7ie pressure is still approxi- 
mately 8j pounds ; will this pressure not force the 
triple piston to release position a7id release the brake 
entirely f 

A. No ; as soon as the reservoir pressure is slightly 
less than the train-line pressure, plus the tension of the 
graduating spring, the triple piston is forced to lap posi- 
tion, in which position no more reserv^oir pressure can 
reach the brake cylinder. The reducing valve continues 
to reduce cylinder pressure until it closes when this 
pressure has reached 60 pounds. 

A corresponding action takes place in response to a 
gradual and heavy train-line reduction, sufficient to 
cause the reducing valve to open and the triple piston 
to move to emergency position and compress the gradu- 
ating spring. 

Q. Is the cylinder pressure reduced to 60 pounds 
iinder these conditions f 
A. Yes. 

Q, What is a great advantage of the High-Speed 
Brake other than those already otitlined ? 

A. Two full service reductions of 20 pounds and 
releases can be made without permitting any recharge 
of the auxiliary reservoir and there will still be 70 
pounds pressure available with which to stop, if neces- 
sary. 



to FOR 
BS. 



ER, AND PASSENGER 



o^ 



DRIVER.ERAKE 
CYLINDER 



ATTACH TO RUNNING BOARD 
1 



ED BRAKE 

Educing valve 
Adjusted TO 

, IN THE BRAKE 
DER 



a 



DRIVER BR 
CYLINDE 




U 



BRAKE 
WO!R 



1/2 CUT OUT COCL 




REVIOVE PLUG AND 

ATTACH GAUGE VvHE 

M3HING TO TEST VAL" 




RESERVOIR 



^ 



3INE TRUCKJ i 
KE CYLlNDEh'i^ 




PLATE IX.— WESTINGHOUSE HIGH-SPEED BRAKE EQUIPMENT FOR ENGINE. TENDER, AND PASSENGER 










TRUCK BRAKE 














L?,.. 










IJT OUT COCK 


fl= 


DRIVEB BRAKE RECEFiVOlR 



Westinghousk High-Speed Brake. 195 

Q, Hoiu often sJioiild the HigJi-Speed Reducing 
Valve be cleaned? 

A. Once a year when nsed on cars, and once in six 
months when nsed on engines and tenders. 

Q. What kind of oil should be used for hcbri- 
eating purposes ? 

A. A high grade mineral oil. 

Q, Hozu can a High-Speed Reducing Valve be 
taken apart so that it ca7i be put together without 
changing the adjustment of the regulating spring ? 

A. Do not remove the cap nnt. The lower case can 
be removed and replaced without disturbing this part of 
the mechanism. 

Q, If the braking power on a car is designed for 
go per ce7it, of its light weight when using a train- 
line pressure of yo pounds^ what braking power zuill 
be developed with an emergency application of the 
High-Speed Brake at the 77ioment of maximuyn 
cylinder pressure f 

A. Approximately 130 per cent. 

The cut (Fig. 60) gives an idea of the advancement 
in air-brake appliances. The three figures (page 193) 
represent, by scale, stops made by the same train going 
at the same rate of speed, but equipped as indicated. 

It takes about twice as far to stop a train going at 
forty, three times going at fifty, and about five times 
going at sixty miles an hour, as it does if the speed of 
the train is thirty miles an hour with the Quick-Action 
Brake. 



196 



Air-Brakk Catechism. 



Comparative^ Stops Madej With High-Speed and Quick- 
Action Brakes. 



speed. 


Stop in Feet. 


Quick Action 

Per Cent. I^ess 

Efficient. 


Feet in Favor 

of High-Speed 

Brake. 


High-Speed, 


Quick Action. 


45 


560 


710 


26.S 


150 


50 


705 


880 


24.8 


175 


60 


1060 


1360 


28.3 


300 


70 


1560 


2020 


29.5 


460 


80 


2240 


2780 


24.1 


540 



Train-line pressure used with High-Speed Brake, no pounds. 
Train-line pressure used with Quick-Action Brake, 70 pounds. 



The above table refers to stops made with chilled 
cast-iron v^heels and soft cast-iron shoes with a train 
which was supposed to represent average conditions of 
service. 



HIGH-PRESSURE CONTROL OR 
SCHEDULE U. 

Q. What does Plate X represent f 

A. The High-Pressure Control or Schedule U Equip- 
ment sometimes used on freight engines. 

Q. How does it differ fi'om the high-speed engine 
equipme7it? 

A. In the engine equipment for the high-speed brake, 
the governor pipe containing the one-quarter inch cut- 
out cock connects with the pipe running to the other 
governor, and reducing valves are used instead of safety 
valves. 

Q, What is the object of this special equipment f 

A. It is designed for special use on roads having 
h'^avy grades and handling loads, such as ore, down the 
grade, and empty cars up. 

Q. What special advantage is gained ? 

A. By using two sets of pump and train-line gov- 
ernors, 70 or 90 pounds can be used on the train line, 
and 90 or no pounds can be used on the main reservoir. 

Q, Would there not be danger of sliding wheels 
if go pounds were used as traiji-lijie pressure ? 

A. If used on empty cars, yes ; but if used on heavily 
loaded cars there would be no danger, as the braking 
power is usually 70 per cent, of the light weight of the 
car, and when a car is loaded to its full capacity, the 
percentage of braking power, as compared wuth the 
combined weight of the car and its contents, is much 
smaller than this, even when using a train-line pressure 
of 90 pounds. 



198 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. How vtzich vtore powerful would a brake be 
when tising a train-line pressure of go pounds as 
compared with yo f 

A. Approximately 25 per cent. 

Q. With the cocks as shown 171 Plate X^ which 
gove7^nors are operative ? 

A. The 90-pound pump governor and the 70-pound 
feed valve or train-line governor. 

Q, What is the object of running a governor pipe 
to the feed valve bracket chamber instead of in the 
7nanner adopted with the High-Speed Brake f 

A. The feed-valve bracket chamber, into which pipe 
A connects, has main reservoir pressure in it, as is 
shown. The 90-pound governor being cut in, the pump 
will be stopped as soon as the main reservoir pressure 
reaches 90 pounds. If the brakes are applied and the 
brake valve is placed on lap position, no more air can 
pass to the feed-valve bracket, and thence to the governor 
to keep the steam valve shut and the pump stopped, and 
the pump will continue to work until main reservoir 
pressure reaches no pounds, at which time the other 
governor, always connected with main reservoir pressure, 
as shown, stops the pump. 

Q. What be^iefit is derived from this device 
when the yo-pound trazn-line and go-pound pump 
goverjiors are cut in ? 

A. With the brake valve in running position, the 
pump does not have to work against a higher pressure 
than 90 pounds, but just as soon as the brakes are 
applied the pump raises the pressure in the main reser- 
voir to no pounds, which pressure is very helpful to 
insure a quick release on a long train and quickly 
recharge the auxiliaries. 

Q, What luould be done in case the cars were 



High-Pressure Control or Schedule U. 199 

all heavily loaded and it luas destined to 7ise a 
train-line pressure of go pounds and a main 
reservoir pressure of no pounds f 

A. The reversing cock handle would be moved so as 
to cut out the 70-pound train-line governor and cut in 
the 90-pound train-line governor. 

Q, Would it be safe to use the go-pound train- 




FiG. 61.— Safety Valve. 



hne pressure when there were air brakes on both 
light a7id loaded cars in operation in the same 
train f 

A. No ; in all probability the wheels on the light 
cars would be slid, if a heavy train pipe reduction were 
made. 



200 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

Q, When rising a go-pound train-line pi^essiirej 
is the same train-line reduction necessary to apply 
the brakes in full as is used with a yo-pound train- 
line pressure f 

A. No ; a heavier reduction would be necessary. 

Q. Hozu much of a traiji-line reauction would 
equalize the auxiliary and brake-cylinder pressureSy 
usijtg an initial pressure of go pounds f 

A. About 27 pounds, if the piston travel were 
approximately eight inches. 

Q. Why are safety valves placed upon the tender ^ 
driver^ and truck brakes ? 

A. So as to allow all pressure over 50 pounds to 
escape to the atmosphere. Experience shows that over- 
heating of tires is likely to ensue if a greater pressure 
than this is used on the tender, driver or truck brakes. 

Q. What is best to tise on the engine if the 
grade is very long a7id heavy? 

x\. A water brake. With this brake no heating of 
tires is produced, as the braking is done with the pistons 
in the main cylinders. 

O^ With a train-line pressure of go potindSy 
is any more braking power developed zvith a 5, 
10 or I ^-pound service reduction than if yo pounds 
was carried on the train-line f 

A. No ; no gain will be made unless train-line re- 
ductions are continued after the point has been reached 
at which the reservoir and brake cylinder pressures 
would equalize when using the 70-pound train-line 
pressure. 



I AND TENDER 



TRUCK BRAKE RESERVOIR 




r COCK 



1/2 CUT OUT COCK 







■y- 



ENGINE TRUCK 
BRAKE CYLINDER 



J eoRMAY Si CU., N.Y. 




PLATE X.— WESTINGHOUSE RE-ENFORCED BRAKE OR SCHEDULE U. FOR FREIGHT ENGINE AND TENDER. 




-^=T=^ 




WESTINGHOUSE COMBINED AUTOMATIC 

AND STRAIGHT AIR-BRAKE EQUIPMENT 

FOR ENGINES AND TENDERS. 

Q, For zuhat purpose was this eqiiip77ie}it de- 
signed ? 

A. For use on engines and tenders in yard and 
freight service. 

Q. Why is it necessary on yard engines f 
A. Because a triple valve will not recharge the 
auxiliary reservoir between very frequent brake applica- 
tions ; as a result it is necessary for the engineer to make 
a great many stops with the reverse lever. Reversing 
an engine tends to draw cinders into the cylinders, where 
they cut the cylinders and packing. The brake on a 
switch engine should be such that it can be used as 
often as desirable and always have the maximum power 
available. Using the brake constantly also keeps the 
tires in much better condition. A quick release is pos- 
sible with the straight air and, if desired, the brake can 
be partially released. 

Q. Of what use is it on road engines ? 

A. Aside from the advantages stated above, while 
switching, it provides a means of bunching slack, per- 
mits slow-ups to be made to pick up a flag, can be used, 
if desired, to help retard the speed of the train while 
recharging in descending grades ; also in slowing up at 
times when much braking power is not required, and 
where it is unnecessary to waste the air to apply the 
brakes on all the cars and thus put needless work upon 



202 



Air-Brakb Catechism, 




< 



2 P4 



o 

M 

CO 

< 
o 

o 
{^ 
p 

<^ 

Q 

M 

O 

a 

p 

O 

o 

en 



d 



Automatic and Straight-Air Equipment. 203 

the pump ; and it can be used to meet many similar 
conditions encountered in road service. 

Q. Docs tilts brake opei^ate e7itirely separate 
from the atttomatic^ and is thei^e 710 danger of ob- 
taint7ig too ninch brakt7ig power if 07ie is used 
without first releasing the other? 

A. Each is entirely independent of the other, and 
the safety valves placed in the pipes leading to the 
driver and tender brake cylinders will permit only the 
predetermined amount of pressure considered suitable 
for maximum braking power. 

Q, What are the parts necessary to add to the 
sta7idard engine a7id tender eqtiipme7itf 

A. As illustrated in Fig. 62, it is necessary to apply 
on the engine a Slide- Valve Reducing- Valve, a y^" 
Straight-Air Brake Valve, a Safety Valve set at 53 
pounds, and a double check valve. On the tender the 
additional parts consist of a double check valve, a 
safety valve set at 53 pounds, and one 36-inch hose, 
with union, angle fittings and nipples. 

Q, What is the object of the Slide-Valve Re- 
diici7ig Valve f 

A. To reduce main reservoir pressure to 45 pounds, 
that being considered proper wath the straight air brake. 

Q, What positio7is has the Straight-Air Valve ? 

A. Release, application and lap positions. In release 
position cylinder pressure is exhausted direct to the 
atmosphere ; in application position main reservoir pres- 
sure, reduced to 45 pounds, passes through the brake 
valve to the double check valves and thence to the, 
cylinders. 

Q. Explaifi the mecha7nsm of the double check 
valve {Fig* 6f). 



204 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



A. It consists of a double piston with a leather face 
on each. When air comes from the triple valve it 
forces the pistons to such a position that no air can 
enter through the straight air pipe ; a set of ports is also 
opened to permit the air coming from the triple valve 



TO BRAKE CYLINDER 




to brake cylinder 
or for safety valve 

Fig. 6^. — Double Check Valve, 



to flow to the brake cylinder. When the straight air is 
used the opposite effects are produced ; that is, the 
pistons blank the port connection to the triple valve 
and open a port connection from the straight air pipe to 
the cylinder. 



Automatic and Straight-Air Equipment. 205 

Q. W'Jiat is the object of the safety valve {Fig. 
62)? 

A. If the reducing valve did not reduce the pressure 
properly, owing to its being in poor condition, or if the 
automatic brake were used without first releasing the 
straight-air brake, the safety valve would allow any 
pressure in excess of 53 pounds to escape. 

Q. If the straight-air brake is left partially ap- 
plied and the automatic is then applied^ luhat zuill 
be the result? 

A. Nothing unusual wall be noticed until the engi- 
neer tries to release the automatic, at which time, as 
soon as the pressure in the pipe between the triple and 
double check valve is less than that between the straight- 
air valve and double check valve, the pistons in the 
double check valve will move over so as to stop the 
escape of air through the triple and establish a connec- 
tion between the straight-air valve and cylinder. 

Q, How then may the brakes be released ? 

A. By placing the straight-air valve in release posi- 
tion, where it should always be when the automatic 
brake is in use. 

Q, Where should the handle of tJie Engineer'^ s 
Brake Valve be placed whe7i the straight-air is in 

use f 

A. In Running Position. 

Q. If the automatic brake is partially applied 
and the straight-air is then used^ what will be the 
result ? 

A. As just described, with the opposite conditions, 
the brake could not be released on the engine and tender 
without putting the Engineer's Brake Valve of the 
.automatic system in Running or Release Position. 



2o6 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

The following directions, if properly followed, will 
produce best results : 

1. Always keep both brakes cut in and ready for 
operation, unless failure of some part requires cutting 
out. 

2. Ahvays carr\^ an excess pressure in the main reser- 
voir, as this is necessarv^ to insure a uniformly satisfac- 
tory operation. 

3. When using automatic keep straight-air brake 
valve in release position, and when using straight-air 
keep the automatic valve in running position ; this to 
avoid sticking of the driver and tender brakes. 

4. Automatic must not be used while straight-air is 
applied ; if desirous of using the automatic, first release 
the straight-air. 

5. Though the use of straight-air while automatic is 
applied will not increase the driver and tender brake 
cylinder pressure above 45 pounds, yet release of either 
cannot be assured while the other brake valve is on lap 
or application position. 

6. Bear in mind that the straight-air on the driver 
and tender brakes is almost as powerful as the automatic 
brakes on same, and that each ^.nould be used with care 
to avoid rough handling of the train, or in holding down 
long grades, loosening of tires on drivers. 

7. The straight-air reducing valve should be kept 
adjusted to 45 pounds and the driver and tender safety 
valves at 53 pounds. Where a full application of the 
straight-air causes either or both safety valves to operate, 
it indicates too high adjustment of reducing valve or too 
low adjustment of safety valves. Have them tested and 
adjusted. 

STRAIGHT-AIR BRAKE VALVE. 

Q. What is the valve shown in Figs. 64^ ^5, 66y 
dy and 68^ and with what is it used? 

A. It is known as the Straight- Air Brake Valve ; it 



Automatic and Straight-Air Equipment. 207 

is the valve used in connection with the Combined 
Automatic and Straight-Air Brake. 

Q. What do the differe^it views repj^esent ? 

A. Fig. 66, a side view of the outside of the valve ; 
the view (Fig. 68) is a horizontal cross-section through 
FF{^\<g, 66); Fig. 67 is a vertical cross-section; Fig. 
64, an end section showing the valve that controls the 
flow of pressure coming from the main reservoir ; and 
Fig. 65 is an end section through a plane which permits 
the valve controlling the exhaust to be seen. 

Q. Na77te the different parts of the valve. 

A. I is the valve body ; 2, the valve shaft ; 3, one 
of the two tappet pieces held to the shaft by rivets • 
4, the handle ; 5, the quadrant ; 6, the shaft washer, 
which is of leather ; 7, the shaft spring, which holds the 
collar of the shaft against the leather washer, thus 
making an air-tight joint ; 8, the valve which controls 
main reservoir pressure ; 9, the one controlling the 
escape of air to the atmosphere from the brake cylinder ; 
10 and II, the check valve springs; 12 and 13, the 
valve caps; 14, the shaft cap nut; 15, the handle 
screw; 16, the handle latch; and 17, the latch spring. 

Q. The valves 8 and g control the floiv of air 
through the brake valve ; how are these valves con- 
trolled? 

A. By the handle 4 acting through the shaft 2. As 
the handle is moved the shaft starts to rotate, thus 
causing one of the tappet pieces 3 (Figs. 64 and 65) to 
engage the stem of either valve 8 or 9, according to the 
direction in which handle 4 is moved. If moved to the 
right (Fig. 65) valve 8 is unseated ; if moved to the left 
valve 9 (Fig. 65) is unseated. The shaft, as shown in 
Figs. 64, 65 and 67, is cut away in two places ; at the 
bottom of each of the slots a tappet piece is fastened 
with two rivets. 



2o8 



Air-Brakk Catechism. 



Q. What is the object of the tappet piece ? 
A. The shaft could be designed to come in contact 
with the valve stems, but the steel tappet pieces present 




To Main Reservoir "^ ■ 




Ezliaust ^-^g^^y Xo Double 
j^ Check Valve 



Fig. 64. Fig. 65. 

Straight-Air Brake: Valve:. 

-a better wearing surface, as do also the steel pins in- 
serted at the top of the stems of valves 8 and 9 (Fig. 67). 

Q. Where is the Straight-Air Brake Valve 
usttally located f 



Automatic axd Straight-Air Equipment. 209 



A. On the side of the cab within convenient reach 
of the engineer. 

Q, Ijz luhat three positions may the handle of 
the valve be placed? 

A. Release, application and lap. 



Fig. e'^. 




r^ 




Exhaust 



f-7-m 



i(y- 




PJ 



I 



To DoubI"e 

Check Vatvc 
J47 




Fig. 66. Fig. 67, 

Straight-Air Brake Valve. 

Q. Explain these positions. 

A. As shown in Fig. 65 it is on lap ; moved to the 
right it is in application or service position ; and to the 
left it is in release position. 



2IO Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q, Cmi the brakes be applied gradually and 
released gradually with this brake valve ? 

A. Yes ; a quick release or application is obtained 
when the valve handle is moved to either of the extreme 
positions shown. To obtain a gradual effect the handle 
of the valve should be moved a distance not sufficient to 
obtain the full movement of the valves. This can be 
told by the feeling when applying the brake, and by the 
sound as well as the feeling when making a release. 

Q. What connections has the brake valve f 

A. It has three and, as indicated, they connect with 
the main reservoir at W ; the trainpipe, or the one 
leading to the double check valve, at X (Fig. 65) ; and 
to the exhaust at Y, 

Q Explai^i the passage of air through the brake 
valve when the ha^idle is placed in application posi- 
tion. 

A. When the valve handle is moved to the right the 
tappet piece in the shaft engages the stem of valve 8, 
forcing the valve from its seat against the pressure 
beneath it and the tension of spring 11. Air which 
comes from the main reservoir through the reducing 
valve (Fig. 62) enters the brake valve at W (Fig. 64) 
and passes up by the unseated valve 8 into chamber b^ 
thence through port b^ (Fig. 67) into chamber b" and out 
at X (Fig. 65) into the pipe which leads to the double 
check valves (Fig. 62), and through these valves to the 
brake cylinders. 

Q, When the valve ha^idle is moved to lap^ after 
sulficient braking power has been obtaiited^ what 
closes valve 8 on its seat ? 

A. In this position the stem of valve 8 is clear of the 
tappet piece attached to the shaft, and the spring 11, 



Automatic and Straight-Air Equipment. 211 

together with the pressure in chamber a^ forces the valve 
to its seat. 

Q, What part Jias valve p performed during the 
operations just described f 

x\. Spring 10 (Fig. 65), together with the pressure 
in chamber b\ forces valve 9 to its seat and it thus pre- 
vents the escape of air to the atmosphere. 

Q, Explain the passage of the air zuhen the 
brake valve handle ^ is placed in release position, 

A. Valve 9 is forced from its seat and air from the 
brake cylinder comes back through the double check 
valves (Fig. 62), enters at X (Fig. 65) into chamber 
b\ passes by the unseated valve 9 into chamber c^ thence 
to the atmosphere at F, and thus releases the air from 
the brake cylinders. 

Q. If the brake valve hajidle is left in applica- 
tion position how much pressure zuill be obtaijied in 
the brake cylinder? 

A. The reducing valve between the main reservoir 
and brake valve is adjusted to close when the pressure 
between the reducing valve and brake valve is 45 
pounds, hence this is the maximum pressure that can be 
obtained in the brake cvlinders when using- the straio^ht- 
air brake. 

Q In luhat position should the brake valve JuDidle 
be carried when the brake is not in use? 

A. Release position ; so placed any slight leakage of 
main reservoir pressure by the seat of valve 8 (Fig. 64) 
can not creep on the brakes, since the air would escape 
direct to the atmosphere by the unseated valve 9. 

Q. In piping this valve hozu may mistakes be 
avoided? 

A. By examining the raised letters cast on the out- 



212 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

side of the lugs into which the pipes are screwed. M. R. 
indicates main reservoir ; EX., the exhaust, and T. P., 
the trainpipe connection, or the one through which air 
reaches the brake cylinders after passing through the 
double check valves. 

PECULIARITIES AND CARE OF THE STRAIGHT-AIR 

BRAKE VALVE. 

Q. What a7'e the only parts in the Straight-Air 
Brake Valve that get out of order? 

A. The rubber seats of valves 8 and 9, and the shaft 
washer, 6. 

Q. How may the check valves 8 and g be re- 
moved ? 

A. By removing caps 12 and 13 the valves will fall 
out. 

Q. Are valves 8 and g i^iterchangeable ? 
A. Yes. 

Q, What effect zuoiild be produced by a leak 
ac7^oss the seat of valve 8f 

A. With the brake valve in release position a con- 
stant blow would exist at the exhaust. When the 
brake was applied this leak would continue to apply 
the brakes harder. 

Q, What ejject would be pj'-oduced by a leak 
across the seat of valve g f 

A. After the brake w^as applied and the brake valve 
handle placed on lap the leak would gradually release 
the brake. 

Q, What effect would be produced if gasket 6 
{Ftg* 6 f) formed a poor joint? 

A. The bad effect of this would only be noticed 



Automatic and Straight-Air Equipment. 213 

during such time as the brake was applied, when air in 
chamber b^ connected through port b^ and b^ with the 
pipe leading to the double check valves and brake 
cylinders, would pass by gasket 6 and escape to the 
atmosphere, causing a blow at the exhaust and at the 
handle end of the shaft, tending to release the brake. 

Q, To remove the shaft 2 for the purpose of 
cleanings or for renewing gasket (5, luJiat sJioidd first 
be done ? 

A. First remove valves 8 and 9 to avoid bending the 
stems of these valves which, as shown in Fig. 67, extend 
within the circumference of the shaft 2. Next, remove 
the handle 4 and cap 14, and the shaft can be lifted 
out. 

Q. Ill cleanmg the valve what special care 
should be take^if 

A. Not to put any oil on valves 8 and 9, or where it 
can work down upon the seats. 



DUPLEX MAIN RESERVOIR REGULATION 

AS USED WITH STANDARD WESTINGHOUSE EQUIPMENT 
ON ENGINES HAUI.ING FREIGHT TRAINS. 

Q What is the special object to be obtained with 
the equipment shown in Figs. 6p^ jo and 7/ f 

A. To provide a means by which a high main reser- 
voir pressure can be obtained with which to release the 
brakes and recharge, withont its being necessary for the 
pump to operate against this high pressure except during 
only such time as the brakes are applied. 

Q. Of what does the duplex governor consist f 
A. Of two pressure heads which operate in conjunc- 
tion with one steam portion of the governor. 

Q, At luhat pressures is it customary to adjust 
the pressure heads f 

A. The low pressure head is adjusted to stop the 
pump when a main reservoir pressure of 85 pounds has 
been obtained, and the high pressure head is adjusted at 
no pounds. 

Q, If the brake valve handle is in full i^elease or 
running position^ how much pressure will thei^e be 
in the main reservoir when the pump is stopped; ij 
in any of the other positions zuhat pressure results? 

A. 85 pounds main reservoir pressure is obtained 
when the brake valve is in release or running positions ; 
in the other positions no pounds is obtained. 

Q, What objection is there to the use of 07te 
pump governor adjusted to shut off steam froju the 
pu7Jipzuhen a maiii reservoir pressure of no pouiids 
is obtained? 



Duplex ^^Iaix Reservoir Regulation. 



215 



tU ir <r CN 



> Q-Z 



C3=fev, 




c 






^ 



Pi 
p:: 






o 



2i6 Air-Brakb Catechism. 

A. A pump operating against a high pressnre con- 
tinuously will wear faster and is much more likely to 
become overheated in freight service. 

Q, Explain why the pump is stopped luhen the 
main reservoir pressure is 8^ pounds^ if tlie brake 
valve handle is i^i release or run^iing position, 

A. x\s indicated on Fig. 69, the pipe leading to the low 
pressure head is also connected at the brake valve to a 
hole drilled into the port, which, in running position, 
conveys air to the feed valve. This port contains main 
reservoir pressure, with the brake valve in this position, 
and as soon as main reserv^oir pressure reaches that for 
which the low pressure head is adjusted, usually 85 
pounds, the pump is stopped. 

Q, Why is a higher 7nai7i reservoir pressure ob- 
tainted zuith the brake valve in other than release 
and running positio7is ? 

A. When the brake valve handle is moved toward 
service position, the port supplying main reservoir pres- 
sure to the feed valve is closed, and the air which escapes 
at the governor vent port causes the pump to start. It 
will not cease operations unless the valve handle is 
again moved to running or release position, until suffi- 
cient pressure has been accumulated in the main reser- 
voir to operate the high pressure head, usually adjusted 
for no pounds. Air from the main reservoir enters the 
brake valve as indicated and passes through pipe A to 
the high pressure governor head. 

Q. Are all brake valves drilled so that the pipe 
from the low pressure head can be connected into 
the port leading to the feed valve? 

A. All are that have been put in service recently. 
Figs. 70 and 71 indicate the proper location for this 
hole in case it is desirable to use the duplex governor in 
connection w^ith the standard equipm.ent. 



APPLIANCES AND METHODS OF TESTING 

TRIPLE Vx\LVES IN ROAD SERVICE 

AFTER CLEANING, OR AFTER 

REPAIRING. 

The necessity for properly testing triple valves after 
they have been subjected to cleaning and oiling can not 
be emphasized too strongly. 

The Westinghouse Air Brake Company has designed 
proper paraphernalia, by means of which triple valves 
are subjected to tests which insure the proper action of 
valves when in service. 

The following is taken from the pamphlet issued by 
the Westinghouse Air Brake Company on the subject of 
Triple Valve Testing : 

After careful and thorough consideration, we have 
decided that, to produce satisfactory results, the triple 
valve should receive one of three distinct tests, accord- 
ing to whether it is in actual service, has just been 
cleaned, or has just been repaired. 

It would be manifestly unreasonable to expect a triple 
valve that had been in service for a period of time to 
pass as rigid a test as one just repaired, and vice versa. 
It would also be manifestly improper to condemn a 
valve, in service, to the shop without first giving it a 
proper cleaning and re-test. It would be expensive, as 
well as unnecessary, to make this test as rigid as that to 
which newly repaired work is subjected ; hence, practical 
conditions can best be met by three tests, one of which 
we will designate as a '' Yard Test ; " the second, a 
" Cleaners' Test ; " and the third, a '' Shop " or '' Repair 
Test." 

While plain triple valves cannot be tested on the 



2l8 



Air-Brakh Catechism, 



apparatus shown, suitable pipe connections for testing 
same can readily be made ; these are not shown, since 
the particular arrangement most suitable can best be 



m rrM^ -^^ ^X-nn m 




UZJ 

Fig. ']2. — C0NTR01.LING Valve. 



To Train Pipe- 




To Supply 
Pipe. 



FiG- 73- — Controlling Valve;, 



determined when conditions under which the work is 
to be done are known. 

Each test requires special devices, and we have aimed 



Testing Tripi^k Valves in Road Service. 219 

to employ standard apparatus as far as possible in the 
designs. 

The special valve for use in connection with the 
different tests is shown in Figs. 72 and 73. It is so 
designed that, regardless of the length of the train, or 
amount of leakage, the rise of trainpipe pressure is 
always at a predetermined number of pounds per 
minute. This rise corresponds to the conditions exist- 
ing at the end of a long air train when a release is made, 
if the usual main reservoir pressure and a main reservoir 
of recommended capacity be employed. 

OPERATION OF DEVICE. 
As air from the yard plant or engine enters the valve 
at A (Fig. 73), it is free to pass through port B into 
chamber D, Trainpipe pressure can always be main- 
tained in chamber L under diaphragm 2 by means of ports 
//and M, Air in port B is free to pass through small pin 
holey, thence through port C, and out at E to the con- 
trolling reservoir. Owing to the unchanging volume of 
the controlling reservoir, a constant predetermined rise 
of pressure is obtained, and this pressure is always free 
to reach chamber G, When the pressure in this chamber 
is greater than that in chamber Z, connected wath the 
trainpipe through ports M and //, diaphragm 2 is forced 
downward, thus unseating valve i and establishing a 
direct connection from the supply pipe to the trainpipe 
through A^ B^ D^ H^ and /. With a long train, valve 
I is forced farther from its seat, thus permitting a faster 
feed, while with one car the valve is barely off its seat ; 
hence, regardless of the length of train, or the amount 
of leakage, this valve w411 cause a rise in trainpipe pres- 
sure of a predetermined number of poiinds per minute, 
which feed is governed by the size of the controlling 
reservoir and of porty. 

YARD TEST. 
The device illustrated in Figs. 74 and 75 is for use in 



220 



Air-Brak£: Catechism. 




Testing Triple Valves in Road Service. 221 




=^jr 




Fig. 75. — Portable Yard Testing Plant. 



222 Air-Beakk Catechism. 

connection with a yard testing plant. It may also be 
nsed between the tender and iirst car of a train when an 
engine is to be used for testing same. The object of 
this apparatus is to condemn from road service to the 
cleaners any valve which will not release a brake when 
the rise in trainpipe pressure corresponds with that at 
the end of a long air train : controlling valve yV accom- 
plishes this result. 

If this device is always to be used in connection with 
an engine for testing trains, the brake valve and equaliz- 
ing reservoir are unnecessary. In the event of the brake 
valve not being used, the supply pipe should be joined 
to the test apparatus at point D, 

Test, — If to be used with a yard testing plant, connect 
hose as indicated and turn cocks A and B as shown. 
Cock C should always remain open when the yard test 
plant is being u ed. The air now feeds through the 
brake valve, and the usual tests to locate leakage, faulty 
piston travel, triple valve, etc., should be made. When 
this has been completed and the train is fully charged 
to 70 pounds, make a service reduction of 10 pounds; 
then turn cocks A and B to their closed position and 
release. Any triple valve which fails to release the 
brake when the trainpipe pressure has reached 70 pounds 
should be removed, sent to the cleaners, and be replaced 
by a triple that has been cleaned. 

If an engine is used to test brakes, the supply pipe of 
the testing device should be coupled to the trainpipe or 
the tender and the other hose to the car. In this case 
cock C should remain closed throughout the test and 
the brake valve handle be left in full release position ; 
otherwise the manipulation of the cocks is the same as 
just described in connection with a yard testing plant. 

To avoid the escape of air, when the brake valve 
handle is in full release position, the warning port in the 
rotary valve should be plugged. 

If always to be used between a tender and train and 



Testing Triple Valves in Road Service. 223 

never with a yard testing plant, omit the brake valve 
and equalizing reservoir and pipe as already explained. 
The manipulation of the cocks is the same as with the 
yard testing plant. The disposal of any triple valve 
failing to release when the trainpipe pressure has 
reached 70 pounds should be as already explained. 

In making the release test from an engine, the engi- 
neer should keep the trainpipe pressure as near 80 
pounds as possible by leaving the brake valve handle in 
full release position as much as is necessary to accom- 
plish this result. 

CLEANERS' TEST. 

The apparatus shown in Plate XI must be used only 
as a condemning test for valves that have been cleaned, 
and never as a shop test for repaired triple valves. 

This rack has been designed to test either the 
''Freight" triple valve (F-36), the ''Passenger" (F-27), 
or the "Pullman" (F-29). It will be noted that pro- 
vision has also been made for testing hose, angle cocks, 
stop cocks, couplings, release valves and retaining 
valves. 

After cleaning the triple, examining springs to see 
that they have not received a permanent set, the gaskets 
to see that they are in good condition, and the different 
parts to see that they are in proper condition to be re- 
turned to service, the triple-piston packing ring, slide 
valve, and the bush in which the piston operates should 
be carefully lubricated with a few drops of high-grade 
mineral oil. 

It should then be placed on the rack and subjected to 
the following tests : 

No. I, Feed-groove test. 

No. 2, Release test. 

No. 3, For tightness of slide valve, emergency and 
check valves, and for any leakage by gaskets. 

Test No, I, — Many valves will apply brakes properly 



224 Air-Brakb Catechism. 

when given sufficient time to charge the auxiliary reser- 
voir ; but in hill service, where the reservoirs must be 
recharged quickly and uniformly between brake appli- 
cations, the auxiliary is not properly recharged during 
the limited available time. This trouble is usually due 
to a partially closed feed groove in the triple, and to 
guard against the possibility of such an occurrence, this 
port in each triple should be tested on the rack after 
cleaning, or on the shop rack after receiving repairs. 

Unless specially directed otherwise, permit cock H to 
remain open ; this is done to maintain equal pressure 
above and below the rubber diaphragm in controlling 
valve N, With unequal pressures it might be ruptured. 

With all cocks except H closed, open cock B^ and 
with a trainpipe pressure of 80 pounds the triple valve 
should charge reservoir M from o to 70 pounds, as 
follows : 

An F-36, G-24 or B-25 triple in from 60 to 85 seconds. 
An F-27 or F-24 '' '' 28 to 45 

An F-25, F-29 or F-46 '' '' 16 to 25 '' 

Test No. 2, — With all cocks open except A^ E^ and 
F^ charge reservoir M to 70 pounds ; then close cock B^ 
and by means of cock A reduce the trainpipe pressure 
to 60 pounds, at which time cock A should be gradu- 
ally closed ; next close cock H and open cock E^ and 
the triple valve should release the air from brake cylin- 
der O by the time the trainpipe pressure has reached 70 
pounds ; failing to do this, the valve should be sent to 
the shop for a new triple-piston packing ring, and any 
other needed repairs. 

Test No, J, — With cocks A^ C, and E closed, the 
triple can be operated by alternately opening and closing 
cocks B and E. The exhaust port of the triple should 
be coated with soapsuds to determine if any leakage 
exists when the slide valve is in its different positions. 
If satisfactory up to this point, close cock B^ open cock 



3=^^ 



»ipe 



f 




<£ 



i=r 



Tt 



1 .^^ 




PLATE XL— CLEANER'S TEST PLANT. 

1 Res. & Brake Cyl. Gaugff 




PLAN WITH. TABLE TOP REMOVED' BUT POSITION OF SAME SHOWN IN DOTTED LINES 



Testing Triple Valves in Road Service. 225 

F^ and remove the union at the triple ; coat the opening 
with soapsnds to determine if there is any back leakage 
by the check valve or gaskets. 

If the valve passes these three tests satisfactorily, it is 
all right to pnt back in service ; failing, it shonld re- 
ceive the necessary repairs. 

SHOP REPAIRS AND TEST. 

After receiving the necessary shop repairs, the triple 
valve shonld undergo a thorongh test upon the rack 
shown in Plate XII. This rack is the same as shown in 
Plate XI, with the addition of the weighted valve A", 
cocks G and Z, and screw /. On it may be tested the 
^^ Freight," ^' Passenger'' or '^Pnllman" triple valves. 

The pnrpose of the weighted valve is to maintain a 
certain difference in pressure between that in the train- 
pipe and in the auxiliary reservoir. If the triple valve 
is sufficiently sensitive, its piston and slide valve will be 
forced to release position without the weighted valve 
being lifted, when the pressure in the trainpipe is 
slowly increased. 

The weight to be used with each valve should never 
be other than as indicated on the weights themselves. 

A triple valve leaving the shop should receive the 
following tests aside from the general examination to 
condemn the graduating spring, emergency-valve rubber 
seat, check-valve spring, gaskets, strainer, etc.: 

Test No. I, Examination of fit of packing ring. 

Test No. 2, For packing-ring leakage. 

Test No. 3, Feed-groove test. 

Test No. 4, For release. 

Test No. 5, For tightness of slide, emergency and 
check valves, and general freedom from leaks of cast- 
ings or gaskets. 

Test Ahh I, — The triple-piston packing ring must be 
examined and known to be fitted so that the ends come 
neatly together when in the cylinder, and at the same 



226 iViR-BRAKK CaTKCHISM. 

time be perfectly free when revolved in its groove. 
Entire freedom from dirt, and the lubrication of only 
the triple-piston packing ring, the bush in which it 
works, and the slide valve, with a small amount of high- 
grade oil, are important. 

Test No, 2. — With all cocks closed excepting F and 
//, turn screw / to its extreme inward position ; then 
close cock F and open cock B very slowly to avoid 
forcing the triple piston back with sufficient force to 
bend its stem when it strikes screw /, which screw is 
supposed to hold the triple piston midway between the 
service and graduating positions. The maintenance of 
§o pounds pressure in the trainpipe should not result in 
leakage by the piston sufficient to give more than 15 
pounds pressure in reservoir J/ in one minute. When 
this test is completed, close cock B^ open cock F^ bleed 
the air from reservoir J/, and turn screw / to its outer 
position. 

Test No, J, — With the triple piston in release position, 
no air in the auxiliary reservoir, and 80 pounds in the 
trainpipe, the auxiliary should charge from o to 70 
pounds, using an F-36 triple, in from 60 to 85 seconds ; 
an F-27, in from 28 to 45 seconds, and an F-29, in from 
16 to 25 seconds. 

To make test, close all cocks excepting F and H ; 
opening cock F will exhaust all air from the trainpipe 
side of the triple piston ; then close cock F^ open cock 
B^ and note the number of seconds necessary to charge 
reservoir Af to 70 pounds. When fully charged, coat 
the exhaust port with soapsuds to be sure that no leak- 
age exists when the slide valve is in release position. 

Test No. 4. — With all cocks open excepting E^ A and 
F (Plate XII), permit reservoir M to be charged to a 
pressure of 70 pounds ; next close cock B^ and, by means 
of cock A^ slowly reduce the pressure, as shown by the 
trainpipe gauge hand, until it registers 60 pounds, at 




-,3'; I , 



^^ rumH. 



PLATE XII.— SHOP REPAIR TEST PLANT. 

Main Rps. & BraHe Cyl. Gauge 




>2 Cook E 1 Cook ! 

PLAN WITH TABLE TOP REMOVED BUT POSITION OF SAME SHOWN IN DOTTED LINES 



trainpipe gauge hand, unti 



Testing Triple Valves in Road Service. 227 

which time cock A should be gradually closed ; coat the 
exhaust port with soapsuds to be sure the slide valve is 
tight in service position ; now close cock //, and open 
cock E; under the conditions now existing the triple 
valve should release the air from brake cylinder O with- 
out valve K being lifted from its seat ; if this valve 
should be forced from its seat, the movement denotes 
that the triple valve is not sufficiently sensitive, and the 
defect should be remedied. The rise in trainpipe pres- 
sure is retarded by controlling valve N^ and any valve 
passing this test will be sure to release properly if placed 
at the end of a long air train. 

Test No, 5. — The tightness of the slide valve in emer- 
gency position and the general freedom of the triple 
from leaks through castings or gaskets should be de- 
termined by painting the exhaust port and the triple 
with soapsuds when all cocks except F are closed. 
Passing these tests, the union should be uncoupled and 
the trainpipe connection of the triple covered with soap- 
suds to detect any back leakage by the emergency check 
valve or gaskets. 



LUBRICANTS. 

Q, What hibrica7its shottld be used in the differ- 
ent brake apparatus f 

A. Steam Cylinder of Pump — Valve Oil. 
Air Cylinder of Pump — Valve Oil. 
Brake Valve — High-grade Machine Oil. 
Triple Valve and High-speed Reducing Valve — 

Hio:h-orrade Mineral Oil. 
Brake Cylinder — A light grease that will not 

flow in Summer or become thick in Winter. 



AIR-BRAKE RECORDING GAGES. 

Q. What is an air-brake recording gage f 

K, It is a mechanism by means of wliicli lines are 
traced upon a chart. An examination of these lines 
will tell exactly how the brakes have been manipulated 
by the engineer. 

Q. What catises the lines to be traced upon the 
chart ? 

A. The contrivance has an arm containing a pen 
which is raised or lowered as the pressure fluctuates in 
the place to which the gage is piped. As the pen and 
chart move, a line is traced showing the variation of the 
pressure. 

Q, What causes the chart to 7nove f 

A. It is connected with a clock movement, by the 
adjustment of which the movement of the chart is 
controlled. 

Q. To what else is the recording gage siinilar ? 

A. To a steam indicator ; but in that case steam 
instead of air causes the pen to rise or lower as the 
pressure changes, and the movement of the main steam 
piston imparts a movement to the indicator drum upon 
wdiich paper is fastened, and upon which a line is traced 
by a pen or pencil. 

Q. To what part of the air-brake system is the 
recording gage piped? 

A* It may be piped to the train line, the auxiliary 
reservoir, or the brake cylinder. On a passenger train 



230 Air-Brakb Catechism. 

the gage is usually placed at the rear of the train, while 
on a freight train it is placed in the caboose. 

Q, Which of these places is preferred? 

A. The train line. So connected, the chart shows 
the fluctuation of pressure when the brakes are applied 
and released, and the exact habits of the engineer are 
shown. 

Q, How many forms ofrecordi^ig gages are there f 

A. Two ; a revolving gage, the chart of which is 
shown in Fig. 82, and a horizontal gage, a chart from 
which is shown in Fig. 83. 

Q. From the record made by a recording gage^ 
what 7nay be ascertained ? 

A. The amount of train line pressure carried ; the cor- 
rectness of the air gage ; the method employed by the 
engineer in the application and release of the brakes ; 
the position of the brake valve handle in releasing brakes 
and recharging the train ; it is a valuable adjunct in 
finding the cause of air brake wrecks or "failures"; 
shows if the air brake instruction of the road is lived 
up to ; shows how long it takes to recharge with the 
different main reservoirs and pumps on the different 
engines ; it is a valuable aid in discovering the cause of 
slid flat wheels ; it increases the interest of the engineers 
in air brake matters, as their record and skill are 
shown by the lines on the chart ; besides these things, 
a great deal of kindred information may be gleaned by 
a careful study of the charts. 

Q, At what speed do these cha^^ts tisually move f 

A. From two and one-quarter to four and one-half 
inches an hour, as desired. Horizontal charts have been 
used at as high a speed as three feet an hour. The speed 
can be adjusted by means of the clock. 



Air-Brake Recording Gages. 



231 




232 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



sasnod Ni 3anss3ad 



wrong ; 



Q, Is there any advmitage gained 
from a slow or fast movement of the 
paper ? 

A. A slow movement condenses the 
record and does not require so large a 
chart, wdiile a fast movement uses a 
longer chart, but shows a greater corre- 
sponding amount of detail. If a slow 
movement is used, and the detail is 
desired at any particular point, such 
as a water crane or milk depot, the 
speed of the paper may be adjusted as 
desired. 

In Fig. 82, the broken line shows 
the path the pen would trace if there 
was a constant pressure of 70 pounds. 
No pressure is represented by the cir- 
cumference of the small circle. 

The figures at the top are a time 
reference, and the figures up and down 
refer to the amount of pressure. 

The distance betw^een the lines run- 
ning up and down represent the dis- 
tance traveled by the train. The chart 
(Fig. 82) shows tw^o records on the 
same run made by two different men. 
A study of the two shows several 
points of interest. 

The best w^ork show^s on the card 
to the right ; the card at the left show^s 
that th^ train line governor was not 
adjusted properly for a 70 pound train 
line pressure, or else the gage w^as 
card at the right shows three station stops 
made more than a 20 pound train 



o 

< 
O 

o 
I— ( 

Q 
P4 
O 
u 
w 

< 

o 

N 
»— ( 

o 



CO 

00 

6 



the 
where the 

line reduction, while the card at the left shows the same 
thing at six stations, and at almost every station the 



engineer 



x\ir-Brake Recording Gages. 233 

stop was made by two applications of the brake. The 
amount of reduction points very strongly to the use of 
the emergency. 

Fig. 83 shows a record taken from a horizontal record- 
ing gage. 

The horizontal lines represent pressure as indicated, 
and the length of the paper shows the distance. 

The card shows that a train line pressure of 72 pounds 
was used, and that the engineer was in the habit of mak- 
ing too heavy train line reductions. 

In one place the train line pressure was reduced to 18 
pounds, another to 15, another to 8 pounds, and in one 
case all air was taken from the train line. .The two 
cases of heavy reduction at the left of the record point 
strongly to the use of the emergency position of the 
brake valve. 

In two places at the right the card shows that in two 
places the engineer released to recharge, but evidently 
did not calculate properly, as both times he started to 
apply the brakes when the train line was only charged 
to 60 pounds. The pressure in the auxiliaries was 
undoubtedly even somewhat less than this. 



TRAIN INSPECTION. 

Q. Why is t7^ain inspection necessary ? 

A. To find and remedy, before trying to handle the 
train on a grade, any defects that would render its 
handling unsafe ; part of the pistons may be out against 
the cylip^der heads when the brakes are applied, the re- 
taining valves may be poor, some brakes may not ap- 
ply, auxiliaries may not charge, leaks may exist, the 
brakes may go into emergency when trying to make a 
service application, and many other defects may exist. 

Q, Whei^e should we begin to get a train ready ? 
A. At the rear. 

Q, Is it wrong to start at the head end? 

A. It would not be were the cocks not opened be- 
tween the tender and cars. If the cocks were opened, 
the air would blov\^ through and out of a chance open 
cock, and a loss of time and air would result. 

Q, Commencing at the rear, zvhat should be 
done first ? 

A. The rear angle cock must be closed and the hose 
hung up. 

Q, What harm is there in allowing the hose to 
drag? 

A. It collects dirt and cinders, which are blown into 
the train and help to close strainers, and which work 
into the triples and cause them to wear faster. In 
winter, ice getting into the hose may block it. 



Train Inspection. 235 

Q. What shoicld we do as we go towards the 
engine ? 

A. See tliat the retainer handles are turned down, 
hand brakes released, hose coupled, and cocks turned so 
that the cars are cut in. 

Q, How does the cock in the cross-over pipe, 
connecting the train line to the triple, tcszially stand 
when the car is cttt in ? 

A. At right angles to the pipe. See Plate I. 

Q. How should the angle cocks starid at the end 
of the cai'' when cut in ? 
A. Parallel with the pipe. 

Q, Do the angle cocks and cut-out cocks always 
stand as just described ? 

A. No ; sometimes in just the reverse positions. 

Q. Why is this ? 

A. These are cocks used with very old equipment 
and may be readily recognized, as they differ in shape 
from those now emplo^^ed. If in doubt, look at the 
crease in the top of the plug, which ahvays stands 
parallel to the opening in the valve. 

Q, What should we always do before coiipling 
the hose between the engine and cars ? 

A. Blow out the train line on the engine to get rid 
of dirt and water. 

Q. After coupling the hose a7id turning the 
angle cocks, are we ready to look over the brakes ? 
A. No, not until the pump has charged the train. 

Q, With a constant pressure of seventy pounds 
on the train line, how long should it take to charge 
one auxiliary from zero to seventy pounds with 
the modern equipment ? 



236 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A. About seventy seconds. 

Q, How long does it take to charge a train of 
twenty cars f 

A. This depends on the condition of the pump and 
the leaks in the train. If the capacity of the pump 
were sufficient to keep a constant train-line pressure of 
seventy pounds, twenty cars could be charged as quickly 
as one. This cannot be done, as twenty feed grooves 
take air from the train line faster than the pump will 
supply it. 

Q. Who should tell when it is time for the 
test? 

A. The engineer. He should wait until full press- 
ure is obtained and then make a twenty-pound service 
reduction, 

Q, What should then be done ? 

A. One brakeman should go over the train turning 
up the retainer handles, while the other examines piston 
travel and looks for leaks, 

Q. What sJioiild the piston travel be ? 

A. If no rule exists on your road in regard to this, a 
piston travel between 5 and 8 inches will be found to 
give good satisfaction on ordinary grades. 

Q, What sJi02ild be done after the retainer 
handles are raised a^id the piston travel adjusted? 

A. The engineer should be signaled to release, and 
then there should be a wait of fifteen or twenty seconds, 
to allow the brake- cylinder pressure to reduce to what 
the retainer holds. 

Q. What should then be done ? 

A. The man on deck should turn down the retainer 
handles. If a blow issues from the retainer when the 
handle is turned down, the retainer is working properly. 



Train Inspection. 237 

A strict count of those working should be kept. The 
man on the ground should walk along and see that the 
brakes release when the retainer handles are turned 
down. 

Q. What should be done after the inspection is 
completed? 

A. A report should be made to the engineer and 
conductor, giving them a knowledge of the piston 
travel, the number of retainers in working order, the 
number of cars, the number of air cars in working 
order, and any general information concerning the con- 
dition of the train. 

Q, In testing, would it do for a brake^nan to 
open the angle cock at the rear of the train to set 
the brakes ? 

A. This is decidedly a poor practice ; brakes that 
cannot be worked from an engine will sometimes work 
by opening an angle cock. If a hose lining were loose, 
a brakeman might apply the brakes and an engineer re- 
lease them all right, while, in making the reduction 
from the engine, the train-line reduction going ahead 
might roll up the lining and close the hose. We want 
to know just how the brakes will work from the engine. 

Q, If there is a leak in the hose couplings, zuhat 
shottld be done ? 

A. Turn angle cocks, break the coupling, and, if 
the seat is bad and there is no extra hose gasket, make 
the seats round, if they are not so, and recouple. If 
the leak still exists, break the coupling, put a small 
stick back of each lug, and close the couplings on them. 

Q, Why should paper never be used to make a 
joint ? 

A. It works into strainers, often causing an auxil- 



^ r Air-Brake Catechism. 

236 

A. wliarge slowly, and it may prohibit getting quick 
^ . on this car. 

/zT'D- When mspectmg a train, if we fi7id a brake 
Jhat does not apply with the rest, what should be 
done ? 

A. See that the car is cut in properly, and try the 
bleed cock to see that there is air in the auxiliary. If 
the auxiliary is charged, signal the engineer for a train- 
line reduction. 

Q. If the brake applies a^idthen leaks off grad- 
ually, without any air coming out of the triple ex- 
hatist, what is probably the trouble? 

A. The air is blowing by the packing leather in the 
brake cylinder. 

Q, How can a brake that does not apply when 
the redtiction is made be so77tetim.es 7nade to work ? 

A. By cutting it off from the car ahead and the one 
behind it and opening the angle cock. The cylinder 
may be dirty, and setting the brake in the emergency 
may loosen the dirt and cause it to work properly. 

Q, If the auxiliary were found to C07itai7i no air 
when the bleed cock was opened^ what might be the 
trotcble ? 

A. The feed grooves might be corroded shut in the 
triple ; the strainer where the cross-over pipe joins the 
main train line, or the one where the cross-over pipe 
joins the triple, may be filled with dirt and scale. 

Q, Is it good practice to pour oil i7ito a hose to 
make a brake zvork ? 

A. Decidedly not ; it may occasionally furnish tem- 
porary relief, but it will decay the rubber- seated valve 
and dampen the strainers, pipe, and triples so that dirt 
will adhere to them and render them sticky. 



Train Inspection. 239 

Q. Is a small leak, one that the pump will 
easily overcome, more easily ma^iaged in a long or a 
short traiii ? 

A. In a long train. 

Q. Why ? 

A. Because there is a much larger volume of air in a 
long train line, and the reduction causing the brakes to 
leak on harder after being applied will be much slower 
on a long than on a short train. Frequently a leak that 
could not be gotten along with in a train of three or 
four cars, if cut in with twenty tight cars, would not be 
noticed. 

Q. If a retainer were broken off and the pipe 
phigged, what would resttlt ? 

A. After the engineer applied the brake, he could 
not release it, as the exhaust port would have been 
closed. 

Q, Would it interfere with applying the brake ? 
A. No. 

Q, If a brake sticks, what should be done ? 

A. Look to see that no retainer handle is up, that the 
hand brake is not set, and that no lever is caught. Then 
signal the engineer again to release. If he is unable to 
release it, cut the car out and bleed it. 

Q, Should a car be bled zvhen cut out ? 

A. Always ; a leakage of train-line pressure between 
the cut-out cock and the triple might cause the brake 
to apply after it was cut out, if any air were left in the 
auxiliary. 

Q, If the piston stays out on a car after we 
hear the air escape froTn the triple exhaust port, 
what is wrong ? 



240 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Ac The release spring is weak probably o 

Q, Is it necessary to cut such a bi^ake 07tt ? 

A. No ; the jar of the wheels against the shoes will 
force the piston in. 

Q. If two hose couplings are frozen together, how 
should they be separated ? 

A. The ice should be thawed, or the gaskets will be 
torn. 

Q, If a triple fails to work because it is froze^iy 
what should be done f 

A. It should be thawed and the drain plug removed 
in the bottom of the triple, to remove the water and avoid 
a repetition of the trouble. 

Q. What three things wotild cause the brakes 
to go into emergency when makifig a gradual train- 
line reduction ? 

A. A weak graduating spring, a broken graduating 
pin, and, by far the most likely, a sticky triple. 

Q^ How would we find the triple causing the 
troiible? 

A. On a train of five or six cars we can watch to see 
which brake grabs first and cut the car out. On a train 
■of over seven cars, the brakes do not usually apply with 
the first reduction on the car causing the trouble, so, to 
find the faulty triple, have the engineer make a five-pound 
train-line reduction, find the car with the brake not set 
and cut it out. Then try again with all cut in to be 
sure that the faulty triple has been found. 

Q, How would zue find the faidty triple if the 
brakes went into qtiick actio7i with the first reduc- 
tion on a long train ? 

A. Turn an angle cock in the middle of the train and 
.see which half contains the trouble ; continue in this 



Train Inspection. 241 

manner nntil the trouble is located in a five car lot ; 
have the brakes applied and watch these five to see 
which brake goes into quick action first, and cut out the 
defective triple. 

Q, If the emergejtcy has been itsed^ or zue find a 
car cut oiit^ and^ whe^i we cut it m^ a strong Jieavy 
bloiu issues from the triple exhaust and at the same 
time the brake sets on the car and cannot be released^ 
what is the trouble ? 

x\. The emergency piston is stuck down, holding 
the emergency valve from its seat. 

Q. Hozu can zue close it ? 

A. Tap the triple lightly. If this does not work, 
turn the cut-out cock in cross-over pipe until the blow 
stops and then cut it in suddenly ; the sudden fluw of 
air up under the emergency piston may raise it. 

Q, In trying the brakes on a passenger train ^ 
how should the signal be given ? 

A. From the head car to apply them and from the 
rear car to release them, to be sure that the whistle-line 
cocks stand right through the train. On an excursion 
train the signal should be tested from every car in the 
train, 

Q, Explain a means by zuJiich poor brakes can 
be detected, 

A. By feeling of the wheels at the foot of a grade. 

O^ What will cliaracterize the zuhccls on the 
cars havi7ig the poor brakes ? 

A. They wall be cold, or cooler at least, than the 
others. 

O, What is this test called f 
A. The thermal test. 



24^ Air-Brakk Catechism. 

Q, Would we expect to find the same degree of 
heat in all the wheels f 

A. No, the heavier cars will have the greater braking 
power as compared with the light weights, and these 
cars would naturally have warmer wheels. This test, 
nevertheless, is a very valuable aid in detecting poor 
brakes. 

Q, How zuonld yon accoiait for it if a test was 
made at the top of a grade and all the brakes applied^ 
but some of the wheels were fotuid to be cold luhen 
makiftg the thermal test at t lie foot of the grade? 

A. One of four chief causes is generally responsible 
for this condition — low braking power, poor packing 
leathers, poor retainers, or triple feed grooves in a dirty 
condition. 

Q, What could dirty feed grooves Jiave to do 
with the cool wheels if the reservoirs charged all 
right and tlie braizes applied properly at the top of 
the grade? 

A. In the usual yard test air enough will leak by the 
triple-piston packing ring and charge the reservoir so 
that the brakes will apply properly even if the feed 
groove is dirty. In descending a heavy grade there are 
but a few seconds in which to recharge between brake 
applications ; as a result the reservoirs on the cars are 
never recharged after the first application that is made 
on the grade, and the brakes on these cars are, as de- 
veloped by the thermal test, practically useless, although 
they did pass the first test. 



TRAIN HANDIvING. 

Q. What should we always do before coupling 
to a train ? 

A. Start tlie pump and be sure that everything is work- 
ing properly. Do not wait to discover pump or engineer's 
valve defects when your train is in and ready to proceed. 

Q, How should an engineer ha7idle the brake on 
his engine in coupling to a train ? 

A. In backing onto a train, especially an empty one, 
he should make two or three applications of his driver 
and tender brakes, and leave his valve on lap when 
coupling to the train. 

Q. Why is this done ? 

A. To couple to the train with reduced auxiliary 
pressures. 

When the cocks between the engine and tender are 
turned, in coupling a train to an engine, the brakes are 
usually applied on the engine and tender on account of 
the reduction caused by the air flowing back into the 
train. If the train line is long and empty, the main 
reservoir pressure might flow back and equalize with 
that in the train line at so low a pressure that it might 
not be able to overcome the tank and driver auxiliary 
pressures so as to force these triples to release position. 
In this case the two brakes would be stuck, and if more 
cars were to be picked up, we would have to wait to 
pump up, or get down and bleed these two brakes off. 
If we had backed onto the train with reduced auxiliary 



244 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

pressures on the engine and tender, we would not have 
met with this trouble, as the main resen^oir pressure 
could then have raised that in the train line sufficiently 
high to have released the brakes. 

Q, What should be done after getting our cars 
placed in the train ? 

A. We should wait until everything is fully charged. 
Q, How can we tell when the traiji is charged? 

A. The pump will about stop ; or place the valve on 
lap, and if everything is charged the black hand will not 
fall. 

Q. What should then be doiie ? 

A. A thorough test of piston travel, leaks, and 
retaining valves should be made before attempting to 
handle the train on grades. 

Q, How much reduction should be made ? 

A. A gradual twenty-pound reduction. 

Q, Why is it necessary to make a test ? 

A. A part of the pistons may be traveling against 
the cylinder heads, the travel may be too short, the 
retainers may not be good, or there may be something 
wrong with a triple that w^ould throw the whole train 
into emergency when the service application was desired, 
in which case freight might be shifted or broken, especi- 
ally in a train partly equipped with air brakes. 

Q, In testing brakes, from what point should 
they always be applied and released ? 
A. From the engine. 

Q, How could it happen that a brakeman could 
turn an a^igle cock at the rear of the train a7td 
apply the brakes, and an engineer could release them, 
but that the engineer could not set them fro7n the 
engine ? 



Train Handing. 245 

A. The lining of a hose might be loose, so that the 
engineer could throw air back into the train to release 
the brakes, but when a reduction was made, the air 
flowing in the opposite direction might roll the lining 
up and close the hose. 

Q, Is tJiis a common occtirrence ? 

A. No, but it is by no means unheard of. 

Q. What else should always be tested? 

A. The train line, to see if it leaks, and how much. 

Q, Hozv should this be done ? 

A. By making a seven-pound reduction in service 
position and then placing the valve on lap. Watch the 
black hand, and the fall of it will show the leak on the 
train line. 

Q. Will not a leak on the train line show if the 
valve is simply lapped without first applying the 
brakes ? 

A. It will in time, but not nearly so quickly as by 
the other way. 

Q, Why not ? 

A. If the valve is simply lapped, the brakes are not 
applied, the triples are in release position, and the feed 
grooves connect the auxiliaries and train line. If there 
is a leak in the train line with the triples in release posi- 
tion, the air from the auxiliaries will leak through the 
triple feed grooves back into the train line, and not only 
the train-line but the auxiliary pressures will have to be 
reduced before the black hand on the gauge will register 
the leak. 

Q, Why is the other way quicker ? 

A. If the brakes are first applied and the valve then 
placed on lap, the feed grooves in the triples between the 
auxiliaries and train line have been closed and the leak 



246 Air-Brake Catechism. 

simply has to reduce the train-line pressure when the 
black hand will register the leak. With a large volume 
of air a given leak will reduce the pressure much more 
slowly than the same leak drawing air from a smaller 
volume. 

Q, JiLst as soon as a train tips over the sitmmit 
of a hilL what should be do7ie? 

A. A reduction of train-line pressure should be made 
to be sure that no angle cocks have been turned and 
that the brakes take hold properly, also to get the use of 
the retainers as soon as possible. 

Q, How can we tell if the angle cocks back of the 
tank are properly turned ? 

A. By the sound of the train-line exhaust. The 
more cars of air the greater the volume of air on the 
train line, and the longer the equalizing piston will have 
to stay up to make a given reduction. 

Q, What should be done if the brakes do not 
hold properly y or we know by the train-line exhaust 
that an anHe cock has been closed? 

A. Blow brakes before the train gets to moving 
fast. 

Q, How much redtiction shottld be made for the 
first ? 

A. Not less than five pounds, and after we get over 
fifteen cars it is better to make a seven-pound reduction. 

Q, hi a part air train, what would be the harm 
171 starting with a tenpoti^id reduction ? 

A. The brakes setting hard on the air-brake cars 
would cause the slack on the non-air cars to run up 
hard, causing a jar that would be likely to damage the 
car or the contents, to say nothing of the efi'ect on the 
crew in the caboose. 



Train Handung. 247 

Q, Why is a light 7^edttction liable not to set 
the brakes, especially on a long train ? 

A. Because, with a large volume of train-line pressure, 
reductions are made so slowly that there is a tendency 
for auxiliary pressure to feed through the triple feed 
grooves into and equalize with that in the train line, in 
which case the triple pistons would not move; or, if they 
did, the air going from the auxiliary into the brake 
cylinder very slowly would blow through the leakage 
grooves past the pistons and out to the atmosphere. 

O. How mnch should be made for the second 
reduction ? 

A. This is governed largely by circumstances, but 
the best results with long trains will be gotten if no 
very light reductions are made. If the reduction is 
being made on a long train and the packing rings of 
some of the triples are a little loose, there is a tendency 
on the part of the auxiliary pressure, that should go to 
the brake cylinders, to leak back into the train line 
by the packing ring. 

Q, We continue our train-line redttctions tintil 
finally our brakes are full set, that is, all the aitxil- 
iary and brake-cylinder press7cres have eqtcalized. 
How mtich reduction is ttszcally necessary to accom- 
plish this, if the piston travel is not over 8 inches ? 

A. About twenty pounds, if it is made with one re- 
duction ; but in handling a train on a grade, if we 
needed to get all we could, it would be permissible to 
m.ake a twenty-five-pound reduction. 

Q. Give the reason for this last statement, 

A. In descending a grade, we may have gone two, 
three^ or four miles, while we have been making a twenty- 
pound reduction. Naturally, some of the air put into 
the brake cylinders has escaped by the packing leathers 



248 Air-Brake: Catechism. 

to the atmosphere in going this distance, and making 
another train-line reduction will let more auxiliary press- 
ure to the cylinders. Where the twenty-pound reduc- 
tion was made with one reduction, the air had no time 
to leak away by the cylinder packing leathers. 

Q. Suppose we had already made a twefity-five- 
potind reductio7Z and the packing leathers in the 
brake cylinders were practically tight ^ if we con- 
tinued taking air from the train line, wonld the 
brakes be set any harder ? 

A. No. 

Q, Wonld we lose any braking power ? 
A. Yes. 

Q, How would we lose brakiitg power ? 

A, The brake is already full set, that is, the auxil- 
iary and brake-cylinder pressures are equal ; with a 
further reduction of train-line pressure, no more auxil- 
iary pressure can go to the cylinder ; but just as soon as 
the auxiliary pressure is enough greater than that in the 
train line to overcome the resistance of the graduating 
spring in the triple, the triple piston will be forced to 
emergency position, and w^e will have a direct connec- 
tion between the auxiliary and brake cylinder through 
the emergency port in the end of the slide valve. The 
train-line pressure being less than that in the auxiliary 
and cylinder, both these pressures will begin leaking by 
the packing ring of the triple piston into the train line. 

Q, Is there any otJier way in which we would 
lose braking power by too heavy a train-line re- 
duction ? 

A. Yes ; the train-line check in the emergency part 
of the triple is seldom air-tight, owing to corrosion. 
When the train-line pressure is less than that in the 
brake cylinder, the brake-cylinder pressure forces the 



Train Handling. 249 

rubber-seated valve from its seat and leaks by the train- 
line check into the train line. 

Q, Is tJiere its2tally any warning to let the en- 
gineer knozu he has 7nade too heazy a redtiction ? 

A. Yes ; especially on a long train, where there are 
more packing rings to leak. 

Q. What is it? 

A. Under these circumstances the equalizing piston 
is likely to rise of its own accord, causing a blow at the 
train-line exhaust. 

Q. What caiises the piston to rise? 

A. The engineer reduced the little drum pressure in 
order to cause the equalizing piston to rise and reduce 
the train-line pressure. It seated when the train line 
was a trifle less than the little drum pressure. When 
too heavy a train-line reduction had been made, we saw 
that the auxiliary and brake-cylinder pressures fed back 
into the train line. The train line now being greater 
than the little drum pressure, the equalizing piston is 
forced from its seat, and the blow at the train-line ex- 
haust continues as long as air is feeding into the train 
line from the auxiliaries and brake cylinders. 

Q, Does the eqttalizing piston always rise and 
give this warning? 

A. No ; if the packing ring in the equalizing piston 
is too loose, the air feeds by and equalizes the little drum 
and train-line pressures, but the braking power is lost 
just the same. 

Q, Is the triple piston stcpposed to form a joint 
on the leather gasket between the triple head and 
the main body of the triple? 

A. Yes, when the gasket is new, but the gasket 
dries out so that the surface is not smooth. 



250 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q, What places should we pick out^ if possible in 
which to recharge ? 

A. Where the grade lets up a little and on curves 
where a train binds. 

Q, To release brakes, where shottld the handle of 
the engineer s valve be placed? 
A= In full release position. 

Q. How lo7ig should it be left here ? 

A. This is governed entirely by the length of the 
train. If, in descending a grade, both hands on the 
gauge show that the train-line and main reservoir press- 
ures equalize below seventy pounds, the valve should 
be left in this position until both hands start to go above 
seventy. If the pressures equalize above seventy pounds 
when the valve is thrown to full release and stay 
there, the valve should be moved to running position 
as soon as the brakes are released^ so as not to over- 
charge the auxiliaries. 

Q. Why, 071 a long train, shottld the valve be left 
in fnll release position until both hands start above 
seventy pounds ? 

A. A large port connects the main reservoir and 
train line in this position and a small one in running 
position, and we get the benefit of the excess pressure 
from the main reservoir in recharging ; the pump works 
faster, and we can charge the train much more quickly, 
because the train-line pressure being higher forces air 
into the auxiliaries faster. 

Brakes are likely to stick and wheels slide, especially 
on a long train, if we try to release brakes in running 
position. 

Q, Why does the pump work faster ? 

A. Because there is less main reservoir pressure for 
it to work against. 



Train Haxdlixg. 251 

Q, Why do the last th^ee or four potmds feed 
7nore slowly into the train line, if the valve is put in 
running position ? 

A. Because when, in running position, the train-line 
pressure is almost up to that at which the train-line gov- 
ernor is adjusted, the spring in the governor begins to 
be compressed and allow the little feed valve to partly 
close, in which case the pump will compress air faster 
than it can get through the train-line governor. When 
the main reservoir is charged to ninety pounds, the 
pump practically stops, and this is likely to happen be- 
fore the auxiliaries are fully recharged. 

Q. Why will some brakes stick in trying to re- 
lease them in mnniiig position ? 

A. Because the train-line pressure rising slowly may 
feed by some triple piston-packing rings, and allow auxil- 
iary pressure to keep equal with that in the train line. 

Q, Why will the wheels slide in this case ? 

A. Because the brake on this car has been left full 
set and the auxiliary fully recharged. A five-pound re- 
duction will probably set this brake in full with a press- 
ure of sixty-five pounds, and this is more than is safe, 
especially with a light can If a brake once sticks it is 
very likely to remain so, as the auxiliary and brake- 
cylinder pressures equalize so high that it requires a 
higher train-line pressure to release this brake, and the 
train-line pressure increasing slowly, gives the air a bet- 
ter chance to leak by the triple packing ring. A brake 
acting this way may be all right if handled properly. 

Q. In desce7tding a grade after getting the tcse 
of the retainer and having everything recharged, 
why is a five-pound reduction imtch more effectual 
than a five-pound redttction made without the tcse 
of the retainer ? 



25 2 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A. Because in one case we are putting five pounds 
from the auxiliary into fifteen pounds in the cylinder, 
and in the other we are putting five pounds from the 
auxiliary into an empty cylinder, and a part of that put 
in blows through the leakage groove before the piston 
travels far enough to close it. 

Q, If a hventy-pound train4i7ie reductio7i will 
apply a brake in full without the tcse of the retainer, 
hozu much redtiction ozight to set the brake in full 
after getting its tise ? 

A. Not over fifteen pounds. 

Q. If all retainers are being used, is it necessary 
after chargi7tg up to make a five or seven pound for 
our first reduction ? 

A. Yes, some of the retainers might have been out 
of order, so as not to hold any air in the cylinder, and 
less than a five-pound reduction would not catch these 
brakes again. 

Q, What s hotel d an engineer do, if, wJieii he is 
not ttsing the brakes, he feels them applying so as 
perceptibly to diminish the speed of the train? 

A. He should place the handle of the engineer's 
valve on lap. 

Q, Why ? 

A. Probably a hose has burst, or the conductor is 
using the conductor's valve. If the valve is not lapped, 
the main reservoir pressure will be lost, and there will 
be no pressure with which to release the brakes and re- 
charge the auxiliaries. 

Q, Which is less httrtfid, a leak that will grad- 
ually slow a train tip, or one that will si^nply keep 
the train rttnning steadily ? 



Train Handling. 253 

A. A leak that will slow a train up is much to be 
preferred. 

Q. Why ? 

A. If the leak simply runs the train steadily and the 
engineer allows the pressure to gradually leak away be- 
cause he seems to be making a nice, smooth run, he 
would have a hard time stopping the train if necessity 
demanded it, after the pressure had leaked down to fifty 
pounds. 

Q. Should an engineer try to Tuake as smooth a 
run with air as can be done zuitJi hand brakes ? 

A. As a rule, no, although on some light grades a 
few retainers will run them smoothly. On heavy grades 
and long trains it is necessary to slow up to recharge. 

Q, What should always be done^ where possible^ 
in making train-line reductio7is ? 
A. Watch the gauge. 

Q, How do you accou7it for the fact that some- 
times, after a seven-poit7id reductio7i of little drum 
pressure is made and tlie valve lapped^ the gaiige 
records only a fivepound reduction zuhen the train- 
line exhaust closes ? 

A. The packing ring in the equalizing piston is 
loose, and train-line pressure has fed by it into the little 
drum. 

Q, Is this more likely to happen on a long or a 
short train ? 

A. On a long train. 

Q, Why ? 

A. As there is a greater volume of air on the train 
line of a long train, it takes longer to reduce the press- 
ure, and the train-line pressure has a longer time to 
leak in the manner described. 



254 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q, If a quick reducti07i is made in emergency 
with the engine alone, and the valve is the^i placed 
071 lap, why is the tank or driver brake likely to 
kick off after a fezv seconds, although they would 
stay set in service application ? 

A. In emergency position, air is drawn direct from 
the train line without taking any from the little drum. 
When the valve is placed on lap, the little drum press- 
ure leaks by the packing ring of the equalizing piston, 
raises the train-line pressure, and kicks off one or both 
brakes. 

Q, Why will this happen 07i an e7^gi7^e and not 

on a trai7i ? 

A. The volume of air on the train line of an engine 
alone is very small, and a slight leak into it is sufficient 
to raise the train-line pressure and release the brake. 
With a train, the train-line volume is so large that the 
leakage into it from the little drum is not sufficient to 
afi'ect the triples. 

Q, The release of the brakes on the engine alo7ie, 
after the use of the eTuergency , is ascribed by so7ne to 
the surge of air. Is this the cause? 

A. No ; a surge of air would release the brake almost 
instantly. The brake does not release sometimes until 
five or ten seconds have passed. 

Q, Why will this happe7i 07i 07ie e7igi7ie a7id not 
on a7iother ? 

A. This simply means that on one the triple piston- 
packing rings are looser than that in the equalizing 
piston, and the train-line pressure feeds by the triple 
piston and equalizes with that in the auxiliaries. 

Q. The above tisually happe7is whe7i stopping a7t 



Train Handling. 255 

engine at a water-crane or 07i a ttcmtable, Horn 
are these stops best made with the air ? 

A. One application is best to use with an engine 
alone. If we find that we are stopping three or four 
feet short, open the throttle, and the engine can be helped 
along a short distance and a smoother stop be made. 

Q, What happens eve^y time yoit tise the emer- 
gency 07i a tnrntable ? 

A. You strike the table a blow equal to the weight 
of your engine multiplied by the speed at which you are 
moving, and then, if the turntable breaks down, wonder 
why the company does not provide a decent table. 

Q, l7i making a water-tank stop with a pas- 
senger train, how should it be do7ie to avoid a jar to 
the train and passengers ? 

A. The stop should be made with two applications 
of the brake, except the grade is too steep and the press- 
ure too low for safety. 

Q. How do we handle the valve to make the 
first release so that the brakes zvill resp07td with the 
first reduction ? 

A. When the speed of the train has been reduced to 
about three miles an hour, throw the valve handle to 
full release and bring it back on lap immediately. 

Q, Why bring it back on lap ? 

A. So as not to raise the train-line pressure too high. 
The feed grooves in the triples are small, and have. only 
three or four seconds in which to equalize the train-line 
and auxiliary pressures. If the valve is left in full re- 
lease or running position, and the train-line pressure gets 
to seventy pounds, and there is, say, only fifty-five pounds 
in the auxiliaries, the triple pistons will not move to serv- 
ice position until over a fifteen-pound reduction of train- 
line pressure has been made. By the time we have made 
this amount of reduction in service position we shall 



256 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

have gone by the water-crane, unless we use the emer- 
gency, and that is what is usually done if the engineer 
is not up to date. 

Q. When should brakes be released on a pas- 
senger train ? 

A. Just before the train stops. 

Q, What sho2ild be do7ie on a grade jnst heavy 
enongh so that the train will start with the brakes 
released? 

A. Stop the same as at a water-crane. No jar will 
be felt with a light application. 

Q, How abo7it a heavy grade ? 

A. Our stop will then depend on the grade and our 
pressure. Safety should be of first importance, even 
if the stop is a trifle rough. 

Q, What makes the jar, if the brakes are not 
released before the trai^i stops ? 

A. With the brakes set hard, the trucks are dis- 
torted, and it is the struggle of the trucks to right them- 
selves that causes the jar. 

Q. Can brakes be released longer before stopping 
after a light or a heavy reduction ? 

A. After a heavy reduction, as there is more air in 
the cylinders to be gotten rid of, and the brakes release 
more slowly. 

Q. What is mea^it by an application ? 

A. It covers all the time from the moment the 
brake is applied until it is released ; three or four re- 
ductions may be made during one application. 

Q, In making a stop with a freight train, when 
should brakes be released? 

A. After the train comes to a full stop, to avoid 



Train Handling. 257 

breaking the train in two if the slack runs out hard in 
releasing before stopping. 

Q. If we have stopped short with a f^^eight 
train, and need to release before stopping to pull up 
farther, what should be done ? 

A. We should wait for the slack to adjust itself in 
the train before using steam. Even then the steam 
should be used very cautiously. 

Q, In running passenger trains over cross-overs 
to get aro^Lnd freights, what care should be taken ? 

A. To do this, brakes have to be used when flagged, 
at the upper cross-over, lower cross-over, and usually at a 
station. We should charge up as much as possible 
after each application. Do not follow the plan of re- 
leasing and putting the valve on lap in such a case, to 
be sure the triples will respond quickly. They will 
respond quickly, but if the station stop is on a grade, 
you may not have air enough left to make it when you 
get there. 

Q. What is the tcsual cause of traijts runni^ig 
away ? 

A. Making a great many reductions without oc- 
casionally charging up, or allowing the pressure to leak 
away, because the train is running steady, and then 
when we get ready to recharge, not having enough air 
left to slow up the train. 

Q. On a fast passe7iger run, how may time be 
saved in using the brake? 

A. By waiting longer before applying the brakes and 
then making a ten-pound reduction at the start. 

Q, Will this not jar the passengers ? 

A. Not when going fast. Passenger trains are con- 
tinuous, and there is very little slack to run up. A ten- 



258 Air-Brake Catechism. 

pound reduction made with a train moving ten miles an 
hour would produce a very unpleasant sensation to pas- 
sengers, where at forty miles an hour it would not be 
noticed. This is explained in the subject High-SpKEd 
Brake. 

Q, Should brakes be tested in takzitg on cars ? 

A. Yes, to be sure that the brakes on these cars 
work properly, and that the brakes back of them can be 
applied and released through them. 

Q, When all retainers 07i a train are not neces- 
sary, how shotild they be ttsed ? 

A. At the head end if the grade is short ; otherwise 
change them around and use them on every other car, 
so as not to overheat any wheels. 

Q. If the brakes are applied and the engineer 
wishes to release and drift two or three hundred 
feet before stopping, zuhat shottldbe done ? 

A. Enough retainers should be put in operation to 
keep the slack bunched. 

Q, When should hand brakes be used? 

A. On the rear of a part air train when backing it 
into a siding, or, if it stands on a knoll, to keep the 
slack from running back. 

Q, Should hand brakes and air brakes be -used 
together on the same car ? 

A. This is a risky practice. If the two brakes work 
together, we are very likely to slide wheels, and if they 
work in opposition, there is danger of a brakeman being 
thrown from the car, and the hand brake being applied 
will take up the slack in the brake rigging, so that the 
piston cannot get by the leakage groove. 

Q, If hand brakes be tcsed back of the air^ if 



Train Haxdung. 259 

there are not eiiotigh air brakes to control the train ^ 
what is likely to happen ? 

A. This is likely to produce a bad effect when the 
air brakes are released. If the retainers are poor and 
allow the slack to run out, the train may be broken in 
two. 

Q, If hand brakes are to be tcsed zuith the air^ 
luJiere should they be applied f 
A. Next to the air. 

Q, Should driver brakes be cut in when descend- 
ing a heavy grade f 

A. Always, or so much more work is thrown on the 
car brakes. The use of a water brake would, of course, 
be an exception to this rule. 

Q If an air-brake train should be stalled on a 
grade^ should part of the train be left zuith air 
brakes to hold them until the engine cogues back ? 

A. No ; the air brakes should be released one at a 
time, and the hand brakes applied. If left with the air 
holding them, the air might leak off and allow the 
train to run away. 

Q, When brakes are full set^ the long travel 
brakes are easier to release. They may be released 
and leave the short travel brakes applied. Is this 
good practice iii holding trains? 

A. No ; it is very bad practice. A train may be 
broken in two in this way. 

Q. If brakes stick and zvill not release by placing 
the valve in full release^ what should be done ? 

A. ]\Iake a full service reduction and then, with a 
full excess pressure, throw to full release. If a release 
from the engine is possible, this will accomplish it. 



26o Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q, What harm is there in pulling hose apart 
instead of nncottpling them ? 

A. The couplings are likely to be sprung so that 
they cannot be coupled again, and the train line is likely 
to be torn from the car or engine. 

Q. Does it do any harm to lean on the rotary 
handle when the brakes are applied? 

Ac Yes ; if the dovetail piece that fits into the rotary 
is tight on account of dirt and gum, the rotary may be 
cocked so as to allow main reserv^oir pressure to feed into 
the train line under the rotary and release some of the 
brakes. 

Q. What is the trouble, when there is a leak on 
the train line^ if the engirie is alone, but cotipled to 
tight cars, the leak does not show ? 

A. The leak is in the angle cock at the rear of the 
tender. When coupled to a train, the leak is not noticed 
as the cock is open. With the engine alone the cock 
leaking allows air to pass out of the hose to the atmos- 
phere. 

Q, In double heading, which engiiie should han- 
dle the brakes ? 

A. The lead engine. 

Q. What should the second engineer do ? 

A. Turn the cut-out cock under his valve, and under 
no circumstance, unless told to, should he cut in and 
interfere with the work of the lead engine. 

Q. If the pusher e^igine has no cut-out cock, 
what should be done ? 

A. The valve should be placed on lap. 

Q, hi this case, why does the equalizing piston 
sometimes rise ? 



Train Handi^ing. 261 

A. Because the lead engineer increases train-line 
pressure to release the brakes, and the pressure under- 
neath the equalizing piston is greater than that above it. 

Q, How may it be seated ? 

A. By putting the handle in full release position 
long enough to charge the little drum and seat the 
piston. 

Q. In case of emergency^ when it is 7iecessary for 
us to leave the e^igine^ what should be done ? 

A. Throw the engineer's valve to full emergency 
position and leave it there. In our hurry, if we tried to 
lap the valve, we might get it into running position and 
release the brakes. 

Q. Why ought we never to bring our valve back 
from emergency position too quickly ? 

A. There might be two or three cars cut out, a 
couple of plain triples, a contracted passage, or a couple 
of cars that would not go into quick action on account 
of dirty strainers. If these cars were together, they 
would not help to carry the quick action back. Gener- 
ally a quick-action triple will not send a quick reduction 
through five cars which are cut out. In this case, if the 
engineer's valve had been lapped too quickly, the surge 
of air ahead from the rear end would release the head 
brakes, and all we would have would be a very light 
service reduction on the cars back of those cut out. If 
we leave the engineer's valve in emergency position long 
enough, we could at least get the full service application 
on these cars, and the emergency on those ahead of the 
cars cut out. 

Q Should the engine be reversed when the 
driver brakes are applied^ if zve wish to stop qicicklyf 

A. No ; the following test, made by IVIr. Thomas, 
Assistant General Manager of the N. C. and St. L., 



262 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

clearly demonstrates that the air brake used alone is 
better than the brakes with the reverse lever, or than 
the reverse lever alone. 

The result of these tests was published in the 'pj 
Aiv'Brake Proceedings^ and is given on pages 264 and 
265. 

The conditions of the test were as follows : 

Driving brake power, seventy per cent.; tender, one 
hundred per cent.; N. C. & St. L. coaches, ninety per 
cent.; Pullman sleeper, forty to one hundred and one 
per cent. 

Boyer speed recorder was used and tests were made : 
first, brakes applied ; second, engine reversed ; third, 
sand lever opened. Track was level, in best possible 
condition, and all circumstances favorable. 

From the record of tests the following valuable infor- 
mation was derived : 

First. Best stops are made with braking power not 
quite strong enough to skid wheels. 

Second. Length of stop is the same in reversing the 
engine whether cylinder cocks are open or closed. 

Third. The wheels did not lock rigidly when the 
engine was reversed without the brakes being used. 

Fourth. The tests demonstrated that the brakes used 
alone are better than with the engine being reversed. 
The stop is quicker, and there are no flat spots obtained. 

Fifth. Enough sand is much better than too much. 

Sixth. Sand should be used before wheels start skid- 
ding, as its use will not start the wheels revolving when 
once skidding ; it will simply increase the flat spots. 

Seventh. Sand being used on a straight track, the 
drivers did not lock w^hen the engine was reversed, but 
on a cur\'e they Avould. On a curve the engine rocks, 
and sand is not so likely to strike the rail. 

Eighth. In expected emergencies, the drivers did not 
lock when sand was used before brakes were applied 
and engine reversed, but it took so long to get the sand 



Train Handling. 263 

running first that, in the end, the stop was not made as 
quickly as with unexpected emergencies where the 
engine w^as not reversed. 

Ninth. The unexpected emergencies are the ones that 
bear the most weight, as expected emergencies are prac- 
tically unheard of. 

The table on page 266 will be of interest, as it shows 
how quickly air-brake trains can be stopped when fitted 
with the Westinghouse quick-action brake. 

The train consisted of fifty Pennsylvania 60,000 capa- 
city box cars whose light weight was 30,000 pounds 
each. 



264 



Air-Brake Catechism, 





•SXOdS XVIJ 


6, 


: 


r 


.9 

-too 


1 = 


: 2 


- 


,- :: ^ :: 


- 




z 






-0 


ff) T3 ,r "tJ r/ 




2 . 


fl'd'd CTd-d a '0 t3 




rt (u 


^1 . cc aj ui cti <u ij 






(U u «^ (U <^ IJ u 






;-i 


cd a ^H ci *-' cc 






M 


X2 a X! hT ^ 




•SDHS 


WOO rO 


M to M CJ w 0^ O^OC On^ 10 (N 




NI HWIX 


)-< i-H CN <N 


w CS i-i w i-i CS ro 




•XHHJ[ 


Tj-(N0C 


vO(N OOin 00 r-^MMOoiO 




NI dOJ-S 


10 i-i ro in 


MID cs<Ncs i-H i-Hi-iM moo 




HDVHHAV 








•SJOiS 


t^CO \D 


UOIO OQiO C t^MMOC^iO 




JO hxonht; 


Tj-00 10 <N 


Tf voco^ ^ r^ 1-1 vo fo <N 




w ro '^ '^ 


csio cscscs i-H MMM moo 




IMIlKINipV 








•sjois 


000 ^-d- 


00 OOio r^ t-^MMOC^t-i 




JO HXONHq 


^ ^vo ^ 


0^•^ VO 00 \0 t^ t^ I-H vO On rovo 
csio cscscN 11 MMM moo 




wniMixvivi 








•Havi^sjoxg 
JO-OM ^vxox 


(N t^ CO 






^r CS (— 4 M t— ( T^ HH M hH HH M CJ 















6- - - 


-§- - ^-6-^0. 




^- - - 










< 


^ 




•asHiS 



CO rororo 


00 000 000000 














: *: 












ffl 
<: 


< 
H 












• [ 














h 


t4 


• • 






• • 

















-0 






z 


a: ~ :: 













<u 








^ 






H 


-d 






Q 


;:3 






Z 


03 

























a 


».. ««.. s. >..>-■>■• 












W 








. 




t; •" 


.p ^ .^ 














'd 


a I'd 




-C 












14 


^ :a ££i^ -1 :£5;S -g 




, 


M 




oJ 


S :- M -."^i; : « -x ~x~ V 




Q 


a 




> 


•^ ;S 2S" -^ :5:.2S2' £ 




U 


^ 




(U 












CO 

« 
-< 








tsxi , ^ 






i- "- t! ?= 


♦"I 'bJD F' Wi rt - ;h "hr ;-c 'hr ^1 ?S tn ^ 












.tH 4; _ 'rH _ .rHCJ.rHV.t-l_.f-lC; -, 






'u'u ^ 


^H t^O^;H ;h ;-.OtH 






QQH^ 


Q :z; 0^- q Q Q^p ^ 




"OM 1 


M CS 


r<- 


'^ 


m 


VD 


t> 


.00 





w <N rOT:^ 


ir 


yo 





Train Handling. 



265 



0) 

•H 







ffl 



•sxojs -i-va^ 


6 


- 


: .2 

CO 


6 




6 


- 


= : 


. .2 d 

cs 


.2 


6- 


:3 . 

«9 


6 . , So- ^ 6 - - - - S 6 ^ 6- 


1- 


^- - >< Z " >< Z - " " " > ^ PH^- 


•SDHS 


>-H w M 0\ 0\ f^ -ri- 0^ m Tj->0 rO fO ^00 


Ni aiMix 


(N M l-H l-H HH M CS )H »H M»-lC4 )-l >-l t-I^HIH 


•iHHjI 


moo iot^ioc^ r^mior^c^ o lo lovo cs 


NI JOiC^ 




30VHHAV 




•sjoxs 




HO HiONH^ 


'vJ-W <S »H Ti-r^iorOrJ- 10 to t>< M ro CO -^ C^< 


IMniMINI^\[ 




•SJOXS 


iD'-i 100 IOCS r^iOiOt^fS lOlO lOv£) N 
■^<N cs cOiOT^J-iOrO-^ loror^ ro rO cO -^ M 


HO HXONH^ 


IMniMIXVI\[ 




•aavjxf sjoxg 


MOO M t^T;^iH M M M C^MM Qs l-l MMM 


HO -ON -ivxox 






8 

ljO(L)- O'UiuO- -'- (U- -0- 


< 


>^^>^ ^a>^^- >.- - Z' 




J2 

<1 


•anajs 


u-5000 000 

Tj-rOfOcO'^rtTj-rOco -^ cO -^ ro CO tO rO cO 




:S :^ -i :i :« :S ''J >J :^J :S <-' 


ci 


d 






[a -.ca ;<8 ;<a ;■« :* ^ :S :S ig^ ^ 


^* 


■^" 




z* 


u -o -o jCJ -dyc^s^a^ 










.^ :Z :Z :^ :^ :^ .oS^^c^Sg, 

;io ;io ;to :"^;io '. ^ • .^ ''^^^'^'^ ^3 
^^-d I'd i'd :'2 I'd I'd :^£^£^(£p 2 


lO 


lO 




5 






H 

b 



-d 


■d 

a 






;_, 


;_ 






H 

Q 
J5 




'd 


a 

(U 




5 


^ ^cft ^-Ji .tr; ,.'/i ..tn ^tfl .M ..r^ -j=^ .-<-' «x: -^ 

V iv":i v:! V":: v^ (u":: (v^ <u u v u <v o ^ (L»u<uu<ua 
2 2 o 2 o 2 0.2 o 2 2 0.2 5.5 S-.2 ?5 *i .2 5^ 2 5< 2 J? 








aaaaaapaaabpaas 




wwwwwwwwww^www 








'd 




-d 






•-d •:: 




• 




<u 




<u 








• '^ _: 








en 




Ul 








• en .-d 








;-) 




vh 








' U (U 




. 




> 




• ^ 












• 




(U 




(U 








• (U -.M 




en 




;_ 




^1 








: t^ -d^ 




(U 




1> 




(L» 








<u <u- 


Q 






a 




a 








..S - . -gi 


U 


u 




bfi 




*5l) 








bfi - - -r: o 


S 
S 


SI 

»-< r. 


- 


a 




a 


2 


•* 


^ 


: a -^ rt 
^ 8 

- - - - u , 


M 


a -)-> n,>-t 




-d «: -55 




a "i^ I'd 




^M ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^fl 






V bi ^ . 




'^"^ ^ > ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^- ^ - p. 




Q<: ■* - - - ^ - - - PL,^ 




* H- * 


•ON 


r^OO ONd >-< C^ cO'^iOvD t^X O^ O 11 CM ro 




►"• 


cs ^ 


^ 


cs cs 


^ 


(S 


Cv 


IN N 


CO 


CO 


coco • 



>> 

u 

a 

a 
w 

-d 

u 

cw 



'd 

.4-* 
U 

a 



266 



Air-Brake Catechism 



< 
OQ 

O 

H 
< 



Old 
CO 

Hi 

D 

< 






O 
< 



o 



a 



(/i 



UJ 



UJ 
(0 s 

o = 

I s 



UJ 






!>. rO t^ Qn to 
t-H M CS »-i CJ 



•3DnB:jsip 



r>. . . ro lO ""^ C< VO ON . "^00 



■paads S3iTi\[ 



'9nip sp(09s 



•9DnB;sip v;^ 



•psads S9[ii\[ 



■9uii:^ sp(03s 



CO 



00 



^ 



On 






CO 



cs t-^ Lo to 'v^oo 
t-^ t^ cs t-^ w lo 

<S CO -^ CO ^ CO 



CO 



CO 
CO 



CO ^ o o o 
CO "xh -^ ^ ^ 



CO 



^ vo vO ^ ^ LO C/) 



V£) 



O 
MD VO ^ 



•3DnB:^stp'';jj 



ON 

o 



ON OJ "sD COOO t-H 
O O On On r>' >h 



ON 



00 



CO 



ON 



;^! -paads S3[ii\r | O 



O O O O ON 

'^l CM C^l (N >— < 



•;judB 



1-1 OJ lO C5N ^ 
VD CO '^ lOCO 



CM 



CO 



LQ CO 
CO lO 



•p93ds S9XTI\[ 



•aiupsppss 



O CO <N LO 



CO 



•9DnB;sip 



•p93d9 S3tII\[ 



H 

oi 

o 



spuoo9S 



aonu^sip 



CS CO LO LOX) O 



LO 



LO 

CO 



LO t^ CN 



O LO LO^ O C< LO 

O M p* CO O "^ CO 

(N M (^"^O^ O CO O^ 

M M M M M M M 



t~>. ON CO O 
CO 00 "^ <N 
M CO VO t^ 



ON 



HH H- ro O O M 
OJ Oi OJ O) W (N 



CO 



o o 

(N <N 



MlOt^l-^l^ONON t^ 



CO »-• 



O CO CS O <N cO^ CO O CO 
OCO^t-^Ot^cO-^CO CO 
(N LO M rt LO LO^ VO LO "^ 






ON 00 CO 
LO t^ ^ 



•pasdssaxTH 



•9uii; spp^s 



r^ O -^ LO t^CO ON l^ t:}- 
rocicocococococo CO 



CO ^ ^ 



CO t^ O On >D ^ 



ON ^ 

l-H 0» 



•SOUB^Sip 



o 

ON 



O C^ Ol CO ON O ^ 
CO O -^ ►H t^MD O 

'Nf lo lo r^v£) lo '^ 






CO 'xt- ON 
ON ON '^ 
lO vD v£) 



•pS^dS S31IH 



CO 



VO LO CO O VD 
CO CO -^ "Tj- CO 



<N 

CO 



CO 



(N O 



•aiiii; sp,D9S 



O t-i (N M 01 O 



^ o 



•3onB:^sip j 






^ ^ "^ LO -^CO CO 

CO r^oo ^ i-H LO OA 

M M 0^ 04 0< ^-1 1-H 



Ol 



0^ 



ON ^ 
LO ON 



'psads S3iij\[ 



•sapB-i^ nAioci 



ON 



OJ O LO^O '-i O ON 
C^ N 01 01 Ol 01 >-* 



CO 
01 



rO 
01 



ON O 

t-H Ol 



CO 



■^ CO 



o 

O O Ol O 



Ol O O 01 lo O 
lO LO ^ CO CO "^ 



CO 



01 

in 






o . 






1^ 7=^. 4-» 'T, 






02 o a2aapQ<i 



o 



a 


n 


•n 




cd 


^ 




f/i 


^ 


^ 


Ph 


p- 



s 



DESCRIPTION OP TESTS. 

1. Emergency stops, train running at *twenty miles 
per hour. 

2. Emergency stops, train running at * forty miles 
per hourc 

3. Applying brakes while train was standing still, to 
show rapidity of application, 

4. Emergency stops, train running at * forty miles 
per hour. 

5. Service stops and time of release^ Exhibition of 
smoothness of ordinary stop and time of release. 

6. Hand brake stops at * twenty miles per hour with 
five brakemen at their posts. At Buffalo there were 
seven brakemen. 

7. Breaking train in two. 

8. Emergency at * twenty miles per hour, the brake 
leverage having been increased to give the quickest stop 
possible. In the seven previous tests the usual safe 
braking power was used. 

9. Emergency stop at * forty miles per hour, same 
leverage as test 8. 

10. A train of twenty freight cars and a train of 
twelve ordinary passenger coaches, run along beside 
each other on parallel tracks, each being about the same 
weight and length of trains, and the brakes applied at 
the same time. This shows the relative stopping power 
of the old and the new brake. 

■^ Speed attempted ; actual speeds attained are given in statement 
and as read from speed gauge on engine. Fractions of miles and 
seconds are omitted. Two engines were used in making tests at St. 
Paul J and one in other tests. 



PIPING. 

Q. What should be do7ie hi preparing pipe for 
use ? 

A. After bending the pipe it should be blown out 
with steam to get rid of scale and dirt. If there is no 
steam at hand, air should be used. Under no consider- 
ation should pipe be used without first being cleaned. 
All fins should be carefully removed to prevent their 
working loose and clogging strainers. 

Q, What should be done to the pipe zuhile it is 
being blonni out ? 

A. It should be tapped lightly to loosen the scale. 

Q, What size pipe should be used in the differ- 
ent parts of the system ? 

A. The sizes given in the air-brake catalogues are 
correct and should be strictly adhered to. 

Q, When tising red lead on pipe, how should if 
be applied? 

A. Always on the outside of the thread to be screwed 
in, as in this way the red lead will not get inside the 
pipe. 

Q, In applying piping, what should be avoided f 
A. No sags should be allowed in which water might 
collect ; where practicable, gentle bends should be sub- 
stituted for elbows, and very short bends should be 
avoided. 

Q. Why are elbows or short be^ids tindesirable ? 

A. The friction caused by them retards the flow of 
air when a sudden reduction is desired in emergency. 



Piping. 269 

Q, Could pipe work be so crooked a7id elbows so 
numerous on an eiigine that a sttfficiently qiiick re- 
ductio7i to cattse emergency would not go tJiroitgh an 
engine ? 

A. Yes ; this has been found so on engines, but the 
trouble was remedied when the number of elbows and 
bends was reduced. 

Q. Hozu shotdd pipe work be sectored ? 

i\. By clamps that will hold the pipe rigidly in 
place so as not to allow the pipes to be moved, holes to 
be chafed in them, or any vibration to exist. 

Q, After the pipe work is applied^ what shoicld 
be done ? 

A. It should be thoroughly tested under full press- 
ure, and the leaks detected by the use of soapsuds. 

Q. After the pipe is tested, what should be done ? 

A. It should be painted with a rust-proof paint and 
one, if possible, that will not be affected by salt water 
dripping from refrigerator cars or by the acid in soft 
coal. 

Q, Why is larger pipe used on freight than on 
passenger cars ? 

A. Because on a long freight train a sudden reduc- 
tion will travel through the large pipe more quickly, as 
the larger the pipe the less the friction exerted to the 
passage of the air. 

Q. Is there any other reason ? 

A. Yes ; in emergency, with quick-action triples air 
from the train line is put into the brake cylinder ; a 
freight car being shorter than a passenger car, the larger 
pipe makes the volume of air in the train pipe more 
nearly equal to that in the smaller pipe used on the 
longer passenger cars. 



CAM BRAKE. 

The following simple rule to find the braking power 
developed by a cam brake is given by Mr. H. A. 
Wahlert. 

Take two wires and place them between the brake 
shoe and the wheel ; one at the top and one at the 
bottom of the shoe. Apply the brakes fully, and then 
measure the piston travel. Now release the brakes, re- 
charge, and then apply fully again. Measure the piston 
travel again, and note how much more it has increased. 
Divide the additional travel had upon removing the 
wires by the thickness of the wire, and multiply this by 
the value of the cylinder. The result is the braking 
power on each brake shoe. 

Four times this power is the total braking power de- 
veloped on all four shoes. 

EXAMPLE. 

Thickness of wires, J inch. 

Piston travel, with wires inserted according to rule, 
3 inches. 

Piston travel, with wires removed, 3 J inches. 

Value of 8-inch cylinder, 2500 pounds. 

3 1 inches = — 3 inches = J inch. 

J inch -^ J inch =^ 4. 

2500 pounds X 4 = 10,000 pounds on each brake 
shoe. 

10,000 pounds X 4 = 40,000 pounds on all four 
brake shoes. 



BRAKING POWER AND LEVERAGE. 

Q. What is meant by braking power ? 

A. The force applied by the shoes against the 
wheels to stop the motion of a car. 

Q, What is meant by the percentage of braking 
power ? 

A. The total brake-shoe pressure as compared to the 
light weight of the car. The percentage is found by 
dividing the total braking power by the light weight of 
a car. 

Q, Wliat per cent of the weight of a car is used 
as braking pozuer on a freight car ? 

A. Usually about seventy per cent or seven-tenths 
of the light weight of the car. 

Q. On a passenger car ? 

A. Usually ninety per cent or nine-tenths of the 
light weight of the car, excepting with the high-speed 
brake. 

Q. Can these perce7itages be ttsed if the car has 
two siX'Wheel trucks, a7td only two pairs of zuheels 
on each car are braked? 

A. No ; the percentages given refer to a certain per 
cent of the total weight on the rail of the braked 
wheels. 

Q. What per cent of braking power is used in 
designhig driver brakes ? 



272 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

A. Usually seventy-five per cent or three- fourths of 
the weight on the drivers when the engine is ready for 
the road. 

Q. What per cent of braking power is used on 
tenders ? 

A. Usually one hundred per cent. 

Q. Why is a larger per cent of braking power 
used on tcfzders than on e7tgines or cars ? 

A. Because tenders are practically always loaded. 

Q, Hozv were these percentages determined on as 
safe? 

A. By actual tests in the different kinds of service. 

Q. What brake-cylinder pressure is used in fig- 
string the braking power with the different sizes of 
cylinders ? 

A. Sixty pounds where using quick-action triples, 
and fifty pounds with the plain triples are figured as the 
cylinder pressure when the brakes are full set. 

This does not refer to the quick-action triple as used 
with the reinforced brake. 

Q, How do we calcitlate the force acting on tPce 
push rod due to the pressure in the cylinder acting 
on the piston ? 

A. Multiply the diameter of the piston by itself; the 
product by the decimal .7854, and this last product by 
the pressure in the brake cylinder. 

Q, What force wottld act on the push rod of an 
S'inch cyli7ider using a quick-action triple? 

A. 8 X 8 X .7854 X 60 = 3015, usually figured as 
3000 pounds. 

Q, With a plain triple ? 



Braking Power and Leverage. 273 

A. 8 X 8 X .7854 X 50 = 2513, usually figured as 
2500 pounds. 

Q. Explain the difference m the percentage of 
braking power of a freight car lights and the sa^ne 
car when loaded to its full capacity. 

A. Seventy per cent of the light weight of a freight 
car is considered safe braking power. 

If the light weight of a freight car is 25,000 pounds, 
it is given 17,500 pounds braking power. If the capac- 
ity of the car is 60,000 pounds, when loaded to its full 
capacity the total weight of the car and contents is 25,- 
000 + 60,000, or 85,000 pounds, but we have only the 
brake-shoe pressure to stop the car loaded that is used 
Avhen it is light. In emergency, w^e get about sixty 
pounds pressure in the brake cylinder and have seventy 
per cent braking power with a light car, but with the 
car loaded, when the brakes are set in emergency, the 
braking power is only twenty and one-half per cent of 
the total weight of this car. 

In ordinary service application we obtain about fifty 
pounds pressure in the brake cylinder. This reduces 
the maximum braking power one-sixth, so that we use 
fifty-eight per cent braking power when the car is light, 
but when the car is loaded, the percentage of braking 
power to the total weight of the car and contents is only 
seventeen per cent. 

Q, How is the percentage of braking pozuer of a 
passenger car affected by its load? 

A. Not very much, because ninety per cent of the 
light weight of the car is used as braking power, and 
when loaded, the additional weight is seldom as much as 
10,000 pounds. 

Q. What forces are figured as acting at tJic push 
rod with the different sized cylinders, the cylinder 
pressure being figured at fifty pounds in service and 



274 



Air-Brake Catechism, 



sixty in e^nergeficy with the quick-action triple^ and 
fifty pounds with the plaint triple in either service 

or emergency ? 

A. Service application : 
6 in. 8 in. lo in. 



1400 2500 4000 

Emergency application : 
1700 3000 4700 



12 m. 
5600 

6800 



14 m. 
7700 

9200 



By using the following cuts and formulae, the brak- 
ing power on a car with any kind of leverage may be 
figured. 




-b 



d— 



LEVER OF 1st KIND 
Fig. 84. 





FORMULA 



a==^ 



Fxb. 
W 



b— 



W x.a 



Fig. 85.— Lkver of ist Kind. 

There are three classes of levers : 

I. When the fulcrum c (Figs. 84 and 85) is between 
the force F and the weight 17. 

II. When the weight TF(Figs. 86 and 87) is between 
the force F and the fulcrum c. 



Braking Power and Leverage. 275 

III. When the force F (Figs. 88 and 89) is between 
the weight W and the fulcrum c. 

Figs. 84 and 85 represent a lever of the first class. 

Q. What brake-shoe pressure W zuill res2clt 
with a force F = 2000 pottnds, b = 16 inches, 
a =^ 8 inches ? 

. ^^j F X b „^ 2000 X 16 ... 

A. TF= or 17= or If =4000 

d 

pounds. 

The forces W and F act in the same direction on the 
levers, and the force at c acts on the lever in an opposite 
direction from both and must be equal to their sum, or 
6000 pounds. 

Q. What is the distance a ifF =■ 2000^ b =^ 16 
incheSj and W = 4000 ? 

Fxb , . c 

A. a = — Yi7~ 5 substituting values, 

2000 X 16 o • 1 

a = or a = 8 inches. 

4000 

Q, What is the force F, when W = 4000 j a = 
8 inches, and b = 16 inches ? 

A. F= — - — ; substituting values, 

^ 4000 X 8 ^ , 

£ = 7 or i^ = 2000 pounds. 

16 

Q^ How do we find b if W = 4000 pounds, 
F = 2000 pounds, and a := 8 inches ? 

A. h = — - — ; substituting values, 

4000 X 8 ^ • 1. 

J ^^ J or = ID inches. 

2000 



27 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



Figs. 86 and 87 represent levers of the second class 
vvitiL the weight between the fulcrum c and the force F. 

Assume that F = 2000 pounds, a = 8 inches, d = 
16 inches, and b = a + dy or 24. inches. 



a- 



d- 



LEVER0F2ndKIMD 
Fig. 86. 





Q. What is W? 
F X b 



TT 



a 



; substituting values. 



Tr=— ^ — ^ or Tr= 6000 pounds. 

FORMULAE. 




w= 



Fxb 



a= 



Fxb 



F= 



Wxa 



b= 



W 



Wxa 



Fig. 87. — Le:ver of 2xd Kind. 

In this class of levers we see that the forces F and W 
act in opposite directions on the lever, and the force ex- 
erted at c will be equal to the difference between F and 
ir, or 4000 pounds. 

We may compute values for a^ F or 6, as was illus- 
trated in the first class of levers, if we know the values 
of the other three. 



Braking Power and Leverage. 



277 



Figs. 88 and 89 represent the third class of lever with 
the force F exerted between the weight \V and the 
fulcrum c. 

Assume that F = 2000 pounds, 6=8 inches, 
d ^ 16 inches, a = 6 + c/, or 24. 




— d-- 




b 



a- 



LEVER 0F3RD KIND 



Fig, 88. 




FORMULA 



W 



Fx b 



Fxb 



F _Wxa 

b 



b= 



W 



Wxa 



Fig. 89.— Lever of 3RD kinDo 
Q. Whaiis JV? 

Fxb 
A. W= 



a 



; substituting values, 



[V= ^^^ ^ ^ or IF =6661 pounds. 
24 

TFandi^act in opposite directions on the lever in 
this case, and the force exerted at tlie fulcrum c will be 
equal to the difference between i^and IF or, in this case, 
i333i pounds. 



278 Air-Brake Catechism. 

The other three formulae may be used to find the 
value of a, F^ or b when the other three values are 
known, as already shown. 

Besides speaking of levers as first, second, and third 
class, they are known by their proportions as i to i, 2 
to I, 2 J to I, etc., according to the amount the force 
F is raised or diminished, due to the class and propor- 
tions of the levers employed. 

To find the proportion of a lever of the first class, 
divide the distance of the fulcrum c to the force F by 
the distance from the fulcrum c to the weight W; or, re- 
ferring to Fig. 84, it would be : 

6-f-aori6^8 = 2. This proportion of lever 
would be called a 2 to i lever. 

The force F is multiplied by 2 at W, 

In the second class, or Fig. 86, the proportion of 
the lever would be represented by : 6 ^ a or 24 -f- 8 = 
3 , or a 3 to I lever. 

In the third class, or Figo 88, the proportion of the 
lever would be represented by: 6 ^ a or 8 -H 24 = J) 
or a J to I lever, in which case the porportion and class 
of levers reduces the force 3 to i instead of increasing it. 




SAME >\S 
OTHER EfM) 



HODGE SYSTEM 



Fig. 90. 
Having studied the classes of levers, we will now 



Braking Power and Leverage. 279 

make a practical application of their use in figuring the 
proportion of the levers to be applied to a car of given 
weight. 

We wish to design a brake for a passenger car, the 
weight of which is 60,000 pounds, and use the Hodge 
system of levers as shown in the sketch. 

Ninety per cent or nine-tenths of 60,000 pounds is 
54,000 pounds. 54,000 pounds will be the safe braking 
power to apply to the wheels of a passenger car weigh- 
ing 60,000 pounds. 

54,000 -f- 4 = 13,500, or the amount of braking 
power to be developed at each brake beam. * 

The length of the truck levers has to be determined 
from the truck construction. We will suppose the di- 
mensions to be — long end, 28 inches ; short end, 7 inches. 

The truck levers are of the second class and substitut- 
ing the values in the formula (Fig. 87). 

F = — - — or i^ = -^^^ ^—L or F =- 2700 

^ 35 

That is, to get a power W of 13,500 pounds against 
the brake beam, a force of 2700 pounds is necessary at 
the top of the live truck lever. 

The forces F and W act on the live lever in opposite 
directions, so the force acting at fulcrum c will be 
13,500 — 2700 = 10,800. This power is transmitted to 
the bottom of the dead lever, which is of the same class 
as the live lever ; but the force F is applied at the bot- 
tom instead of the top of the lever. 

We have from Fig. 87 : 

Tj, F X b yx^ 10,800 X ^O Jjr 

W= or 17= — ^ ^ or \V= i'^,soo 

a 24 ^'"^ 

So that, with a force of 2700 pounds acting at the top 
of the live lever of the dimensions given, a power IF of 
13,500 pounds is developed at each truck, brake beam. 



28o Air-Brake Catechism. 

The dead truck lever need not be of the same length 
as the live lever, but the proportions between the holes 
must be the same in each. 

The force of 2700 pounds that acts on the top of the 
live lever also acts at X, the end of the floating lever, 
and we must now determine what force must act on the 
rod that connects the end of the cylinder lever with the 
floating lever. 

This rod is connected at the middle of the floating 
lever, and the power at this point must be sufficient to 
develop a force of 2700 pounds at each end of the float- 
ing le^er. 

The force exerted at the middle must be 2X2700 or 
5400 pounds, as half of this amount is given to each end 
of the floating lever. 

This 5400 pounds acting at the center of the floating 
lever must also act at the end of the cylinder lever, 
being connected directly with it. 

What we now wish to determine is, with any desired 
length over all, how must the holes be spaced in the 
cylinder lever that the pressure acting on the push rod 
will produce a force of 5400 pounds at the outer end of 
the cylinder lever. 

A 12-inch cylinder is recommended by the Westing- 
house Company to be used with this weight of car. The 
brake set in emergency with a 12-inch cylinder gives 
us a push at the piston rod of 6800 pounds. We will 
suppose the distance between the outside holes of the 
cylinder lever to be 30 inches. 

The following rule will enable us to locate the mid- 
dle hole in the cylinder lever to which the tie rod is 
attached. 

Mttltiply the force acting at the piston by the 
length of the lever between the otitside holes, and 



Braking Power and Leverage. 281 

divide the product by the smn of the forces acting at 
both ends of the cylinder lever. The result will be 
the distance fro7n the middle hole of the cylinder 
lever to the hole to which the connection r2inni7ig to 
the floating lever is attached. 

Applying this rule to our problem we have 
6800 X 30 = 204,000 
6800 + 5400 = 12,200 
204,000 -^ 12,200 == 16.72 
30 — 16.72 = 13.28 

The distance between the holes at the short end is 
13.28 and the long end 16.72 inches, and, according to 
the rule, the long end is connected to the connection 
running to the floating lever. 

The force exerted at the middle hole of the cylinder 
lever is also communicated to a hole similarly placed in 
the other cylinder lever, so that, using the same levers, 
we will obtain the same braking power on the wheels of 
the other truck. 

In figuring the levers for the Stevens system of lever- 
age, the power desired at the top of the live lever is 
figured the same as just explained. 

When we know this force, we know that the same 
power has to exist at the outer end of the cylinder lever, 
as the Stevens system has no floating lever. 

This we figure by the rule already given for spacing 
the holes in the cylinder levers. 

To figure the braking power of a car already equipped, 
we start with the force acting on the piston rod and 
work towards the truck levers by the aid of the formulae 
given. 

To use the formulae, first determine the class of lever 
with which we have to deal. 

The foregoing illustrations were a practical applica. 



282 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

tioti of the formulae, in calculating the proportion of 
levers that would give a proper braking power on a car 
of know^n weight. 

We will now consider a shorter method of calculating 
the proportion of levers for a Hodge and for the Stevens 
s}^stems of leverage for this same car. 

Fig. 90 (page 278) shows the Hodge system of levers. 
If this were a Stevens system, the floating lever would 
not be used, and the other end of the connection to the 
live lever of the truck would connect directly with the 
outer end of the cylinder lever. With the Stevens sys- 
tem the hand-brake connection runs from the brake 
mast direct to the top of the dead lever. 

(i.) To find the total braking power required : 

Subtract 10 per cent, of the weight of the car on the 
wheels to be braked for passenger cars, and 30 per cent. 
for freight cars. 

(2.) To find the leverage required: 

Divide the total braking power required by the total 
pressure on the piston. 

(3.) To find the proportion of the brake-beam levers: 

Divide the entire length of the lever by the short end, 
if the truck has a bottom connection ; if it has a middle 
connection, divide the long by the short end. 

(4.) To find the total brake-bea^n leverage : 

Multiply the proportion of the brake-beam levers by 
two, for the Hodge system, and by four for the Stevens 
system. 

(5.) To find tlie proportioft of the cylinder lever : 

Multiply the whole length of the lever by the required 
leverage and divide the product by the sum of the total 
brake-beam leverage plus the required leverage. 

If the required leverage is greater than the total brake- 



Braking Power and Leverage. 283 

beam leverage, the long end of the lever must go next 
to the cylinder ; if less, the short end goes next to the 
cylinder. 

The dead and live levers may be of different lengths, 
but must be of the same proportion to develop the same 
braking power. 

EXAMPi^E. 

Hodge system of levers, as shown on page 278, also 
the lengths of the truck levers. 

Weight of car, 60,000 lbs. 

A 12-inch cylinder is used with this weight of car. 

A pressure of 6,800 lbs. is developed on a 12-inch 
piston, using a quick-action triple valve. 

(i.) 60,000 lbs. less 10 per cent, is 54,000 lbs. 

(2.) 54,000 lbs. -f- 6,800 = 7.94, leverage required. 

(3O 35 '^ 7 = 5) brake-beam leverage. 

(4.) 5 X 2 == 10, total brake-beam leverage. 

Assume the length of the outside holes of the cylinder 
lever to be 30 inches. 

(5-) (3^ X 7.94) -^ (7.94 + 10) = 13.28 inches. 
30 — 13.28 = 16.72 inches. 

The required leverage is less than the total brake- 
beam leverage, hence the short end of the cylinder lever 
connects to the piston. 

Stevens s}'stem — same car. 

(i.) 60,000 lbs. less 10 per cent, is 54,000 lbs. 

(2.) 54,000 -^ 6,800 - 7.94, the leverage required. 

(3.) 35 -^ 7 = 5, the brake-beam leverage. 

(4.) 5 X 4 = 20, the total brake-beam leverage. 

The cylinder lever is 30 inches between outside holes. 

(5-) {30 X 7.94) -^ (20 X 7.94) = 8.53 inches. 
30 — 8.53 = 21.47 inches. 

The required leverage is less than the total brake- 
beam leverage, hence, according to the rule, the short 
end of the cylinder lever (8.53 inches) connects to the 
piston. 



284 



Air-Brake; Catkchism. 




STEVENS SYSTEM 

OF 

CAR BRAKE LEVERS 



Fig. 91 




HODGE SYSTEM 

OF 

CAR BRAKE LEVERS 



Fig. 92. 




TENDER BRAKE 
LEVERS 



Fig. 93. 



Braking Power and Leverage. 285 

Q, Give a 7'tile by zuJiich the braking poiuer on 
practically any engi^ie^ tcmder or car can be calcu- 
lated. 

A. INIiiltiply the force acting by the distance from 
the force to the fulcrum, and divide this product by the 
distance from the work to the fulcrum ; the result will 
be the work that can be accomplished. 

In this rule let F == force, 
W = work, 

a = distance from the point at which 
the force is applied to the ful- 
crum, 
b = distance from the fulcrum to the 
point at which the work is to be 
accomplished. 

Then we have the following formula which can be 

used : 

F X ^ 
W= — , — 



Q. JVhat must be determined to ztse this rule 
intelligently ? 

A. It must always first be determined which point 
on any lever is the fulcrum. For instance, in consider- 
ing the piston lever (Fig. 90) the fulcrum is the rod 
which connects the piston and cylinder levers when we 
wash to ascertain the amount of work that can be done 
at the outer end of the piston lever. If we wish to 
ascertain the amount of work that can be done on the 
rod connecting the piston and cylinder levers, the ful- 
crum would then be the outer pin in the piston lever. 

To find the work accomplished on the brake shoes 
connected to the live truck levers (Fig. 90), the lower 
pin of the live lever is the fulcrum ; but if we wish to 
know what work is done on the bottom truck connec- 



286 Air-Brake Catechism. 

tion by a force acting on the top of the live lever, the 
point at which the brake shoe is shown represents the 
fulcrum. 

What has been said on the subject of brake leverage 
in this chapter is all useful, and a thorough understand- 
ing of it will enable one to make many short cuts in 
leverage problems presented for consideration, but the 
last very simple rule will be found to be sufficient with 
which to calculate the braking power in practically any 
system of leverage. 



SIZES OF CYLINDERS TO BE USED OK CARS 
AND TENDERS OF DIFFERENT WEIGHTS. 

1 6-inch brake cylinder on passenger cars whose light 
weights exceed 92,000 pounds. 

14-inch brake cylinder on passenger cars whose light 
weights are between 68,000 and 92,000 pounds. 

1 2-inch brake cylinder on passenger cars whose light 
weights are between 47,000 and 68,000 pounds. 

lo-inch brake cylinder on passenger cars whose light 
weights are between 30,000 and 47,000 pounds. 

6-inch brake cylinder on freight cars whose light 
weights are less than 15,000 pounds. 

8-inch brake cylinder on freight cars whose light 
weights are between 15,000 and 40,000 pounds. 

lo-inch brake cylinder on freight cars whose light 
weights exceed 40,000 pounds. 

8-inch brake cylinder on tenders whose light weights 
are less than 30,000 pounds. 

lo-inch brake cylinder on tenders whose light weights 
are between 30,000 and 47,000 pounds. 

1 2-inch brake cylinder on tenders whose light weights 
are over 47,000 pounds. 



AMERICAN BRAKE LEVERAGE. 

Q, How do you find the braking power on an 
engine equipped with the American equalized brake 
as shown in sketcJi, page 218 ? 

A. Multiply the cylinder value, or total push on the 
piston, by the long lever arm, and divide this product 
by the short lever arm. This result multiplied by 2 
gives the total braking power. 

Q, With the long lever arm 2^ inches long and 
the short ar^n 5, what braking power luould we have, 
using 12-inch cylinders ? 

A. 56,000 pounds. 
Thus: 

5600 X 25 = 140,000 

140,000 -f- 5 = 28,000 

28,000 X 2 = 56,000 

Q, If any different design of rigging were used 
than that shown in the sketch, how could the braking 
power be figtcred ? 

A. First find the power exerted at the bottom of the 
rocker shaft and use this in connection with the cuts 
illustrating the different classes of levers. 

Q. What per cent of the total weight on drivers 
is iLsed as braking pozuer with driver brakes ? 

A. Seventy-five per cent of the engine's weight on 
the drivers when ready for the road. 



American Brake Leverage. 



289 



Q, What braking power shottld be tised on an 
engine whose weight on drivers is go, 666 pounds ? 
A. 90,666 X .75 = 68,000 pounds. 

Q, What weigJit shoiild be on the drivers for 
an engine to have 68,000 pounds braking power ? 
A. 68,000 -^ .75 = 90,666 pounds. 

Q, How should the holes be spaced i^i levers A 
and D on a^i e7igine having two pairs of drivers, to 
give an equal braking power on each wheel? 

Ao The middle hole in A should be equidistant 
from the two outside ones. The hole in the lever at D 
should be so as to have the connection attached at k 
stand about parallel with the track. The corresponding 
hole k at the other end of the lever D must be placed the 
same distance from the other end. 



T 



01 
1 














^ 


r 




^— ->j^ 


fo\ 


u 


f 




l2> 


^^ 


u 

\ 










u 



ABC 
Fig. 94.— American Equai^ized Brake. 



D 



Q, How should the holes be spaced in levers A, 
B, and D, if on a mogul or engine having three 
pairs of drivers ? 

A. The distance 6, lever A^ should be one-half the 
distance/. The distance g, lever i?, should be equal to 
h. The hole /:, lever D, should be the same as on an 
engine having two pairs of drivers. 



290 



Air-Brakk Catechism. 



Q, How should the holes in the levers A, B, C^ 
and D be spaced on a consolidation or ejigine with 
four pairs of drivers ? 

A, The distance e in lever ^ should be one- third of/. 
The distance g^ lever B^ should be one-half of li. The 
distance i^ lever C, should be equal to j. The hole k in 
lever D should be the same as with an engine having 
two or three pairs of drivers. 



AIR HOSE. 

Q, What kinds, of hose are used in the air 
brake and signal systems ? 

A. Usually one-inch hose is used with signal equip- 
ment and cars in passenger, mail, and express service ; 
while inch and one-quarter hose is used exclusively in 
freight service. 

Q. Is this a standard 07i all roads f 

A. Xo ; some roads use the inch and one-quarter 
hose w^ith the brake equipment in both freight and 
passenger service. 

Q, Would there be a7iy objeetio7z to using one- 
i^ich hose in freight se7^viee ? 

A. The chief objection consists in the fact that the 
small hose presents a greater frictional resistance to the 
passage of air. This would be especially objectionable 
when it was desired to make a quick reduction to apply 
the brakes in quick action. 

Q. What is the objeet of having different hose 
couplings for the air a7id signal hose f 

A. So that brakemen, when in a hurry, cannot 
couple the brake and signal hose together ; some com- 
panies paint the signal hose coupling red as a further 
aid when coupling hose. 

Q, How many cars of air are coupled up and 
operated ? 

A. Some roads regularly couple as high as 115 cars 
and operate the brakes with the air supplied by a nine 
and one-half inch pump. 



292 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. Cotdd this be done with a poor hose f 
A. No, since with poor hose there is often consider- 
able leakage not discernible with the naked eye. 

Q, How may porous hose be detected f 
A. By coating the ontside with soapsnds. 

Q. What is the usual life of air hose ? 
A. Passenger, abont two and one-half years ; freight, 
about two years. 

Q. How is air hose bought f 

A. Some on account of cheapness, some b}" a time 
guarantee, and others by specification, the roads being 
willing to assume the risk in the latter case if they know 
the hose to be first-class when put in service. 

Q, What is the object of the markings show7i on 
the hose {Fig. 94) ? 

A. It is for the purpose of obtaining a record of the 
life of the hose. The one applying the hose should cut 
off the figure representing the month, in the line headed 
by the letter A, and the figure w^hich shows the year. 
When the hose is removed the year and month should 
also be shown by cutting off the proper numbers. 

The following specifications have been recommended 
to railroads by the Peerless Rubber Manufacturing 
Company of New York. They have been in force for 
some time on many of the large railroads throughout 
the countrv, and the results obtained have been such 
as to cause them to believe that better results are ob- 
tained by buying hose from specification rather than in 
the open market. 

AIR-BRAKE AND SIGNAE-HOSE SPECIFICATIONS ISSUED 

BY PEEREESS RUBBER MANUFACTURING 

COMPANY OF NEW YORK. 

All air-brake and signal hose must be soft and pliable, 



Air Hose. 293 

and not less than 4-ply. The tube to be hand made 
and so firmly joined to the canvas that it cannot be 
pulled away without breaking or splitting the tube. 
The tube, friction, coating and cover to be of the same 
quality of gum. 

All cotton duck to be used in air-brake and signal 
hose to weigh not less than from 20 oz. to 22 oz. per 
yard, 38 to 40 inches wide, to be loosely woven and 
long fibre. Duck must be frictioned on both sides, 
and, in addition to the friction, must have a heavy 
coating of gum on one side, so when made up there 
will be a distinct layer of gum between each ply of 
duck. Hose without the coating will be rejected. 



t^^^tfSM^wm}^ 



Rj2;34;S6^miOin^^ j 



Fig. 95. 

The tube to be not less than 15-gauge thick. The 
inside diameter of freight hose must not be more than 
1 1^ inches nor less than i }{ inches. Outside diameter 
not more than 2 inches nor less than i ^ inches. The 
inside diameter of passenger and signal hose must not 
be more than 1^^ inches nor less than i inch. Outside 
diameter must not be more than 1 54^ inches nor less 
than i^^ inches. Diameter to be as specified through- 
out the entire length. All short lengths to have capped 
ends. All caps must be vulcanized on, not pasted or 
cemented on. 

Each standard length of air and signal hose must be 
branded with the name of the manufacturer, and the 
year and month in which made, name of road, and a 
table of raised letters denoting the years and months 
as illustrated above. 



294 



Air-Brake Catechism 



All Aii^-Brake and Signal Hose mnst stand the 

following test, 

FiHction Test. — The friction will be determined by 
the force required to unwind a section of hose i inch in 
length, the force being applied at the point of separation, 
as per sketch. With a force of 25 lbs., the separation 
must be uniform and regular, and when 
unwound from outside to tube, the average 
speed must not be greater than 12 inches 
in 20 minutes. 

Stretching Test, — The i-inch section of 
the tube or inner lining should then be 
taken from the piece of i-inch section used 
in the friction test, and cut at the thickest 
part of lap ; then marks 2 inches apart wall 
be placed on it and it must be stretched 10 
inches from the aforesaid 2-inch marks, and 
released immediately. It will then be re- 
marked, and wall be stretched 10 inches, or 
400 per cent, without breaking, to remain 
stretched 10 minutes, and to be measured 
10 minutes after the strain is removed. In 
no case must the piece show more than 14^-inch per- 
m.anent se,t or elongation in 2 inches. Hose should be 
at least from 3 to 7 days old before testing. 

All rejected material may be returned, the shipper 
paying freight both w^ays. 




A FEW PRACTICAL FORMULA AND RULES 
FOR AIR-BRAKE INSPECTORS. 

,. Braking power ^^ . i . 
(i) ^ ,. , ^ , — = Total leverage. 
Cylinder value ^ 



(3) 



i-inch piston travel Shoe movement for i 



Total leverage . inch of piston travel. 

Shoe wear Total increase of piston travel 

Shoe movement ^ to wear out a set of shoes, 
for I inch of 
piston travel 

I1.1.USTRAT10N OF ABOVE Formula. 

Assume : 

Weight of car = 40,000 pounds ; it is to be braked at 
ninety per cent of its weight ; lo-inch cylinder used ; 
shoes I J inches thick. 

Ninety per cent of 40,000 = 36,000 pounds. The 
cylinder value, or push on the piston, of a lo-inch 
cylinder, when the brake is set in emergency with a 
quick-action triple, is 4700 pounds. 

Substituting values in the equations - 

(1)36^^^7.66 
4700 

7.66 is the total leverage ; that is, the push of 4700 
pounds on the piston must be multiplied 7.66 times to 
give the proper braking power. 

(2) — -—^.13'' or ^ 



7.66 100 



296 Air-Brake Catechism. 

j\% of an inch is the distance that the brake shoes will 
move for each inch that the piston travels. 

iii" inches is the distance the piston travel would 
have to increase to wear out a set of shoes i-| inches 
thick. 

To find the area of a piston : 

Multiply the diameter of the piston by itself and 
this prodtict by the decimal .78^4. 

Example : 

What is the area of an 8-inch piston ? 

8^^ X 8 = 64 sq. in. 
64 sq. in. X .7854 = 50.26 sq. in. 

50.26 square inches is the area of the piston ; that is, 
the number of square inches in a circle 8 inches in 
diameter. 

To find the volume or cubical contents of a cylinder: 

Multiply the diameter of the cyli7ider by itself 
this product by the decimal .78^4^ a^id this product 
by the length of the cylinder. 

Example : 

What is the volume of a cylinder 8 inches in diameter 
and one foot long ? 

8'^ X 8 = 64 sq. in. 

64 sq. in. X .7854 = 50.26 sq. in. 

50.26 sq. in. X 12 = 603.12 cu. in. 

To find the pressure at which an auxiliary and brake 
cylinder will equalize with a full service application of 



Formula and Rules. 297 

the brake using an initial pressure of seventy pounds in 
the train line and auxiliary : 

Multiply the capacity of the atixiliary i^i cttbic 
inches by eighty-five pounds {seventy pounds trai7i- 
line pressure plus fifteen pounds atmospheric press- 
ured^ and divide the product by the comb i^ied capacity 
of the atixiliaiy and brake cylinder. The quotient 
will be^ approximately^ the pressure plus fifteen 
pounds atmospheric pressure. This is 7iot absolutely 
correct^ as it does not take into account the clearance 
in the cylinder back of the pisto7i with the brake 
released. This usually corresponds to abotct i inch 
of piston travel. 

Example : 

Capacity of freight auxiliary reservoir - 1625 ^^^ in- 
capacity of 8-inch brake cylinder with 8-inch piston 
travel = 400 cu. in. 

1625 X 85 = 138,125. 138,125 -^ (1625 + 400) = 68 
68 lbs. — 15 = 53 lbs. 

Fifty-three pounds is the pressure obtained in the 
auxiliary and brake cylinder with the brake full set in 
service. 

The formulae given below will be found convenient 
with which to find either the proper width of a lever to 
withstand Zi. given strain, or to ascertain the fibre strain 
on a lever. 

R — Fibre strain. 

/ = Distance from point power is applied to center of 
pin at point for w^hich dimension or amount of fibre 
strain is desired. 

b — Equals thickness of lever. 

d r- Width of lever. 

No allowance is made for the metal taken out of the 



298 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

lever for the pin holes, as the removal of metal has no 
practical weakening effect, same being so close to the 
central axis. 

In general railroad air-brake practice, from 18,000 to 
20,000 is considered a safe fibre strain. 

6 PI 



4 



6 PI 



Example : 

To find the fibre strain at the middle hole of a lever 
24 inches between the push-rod and ontside holes, 
middle hole 12 inches from push-rod hole, width of 
lever 4.336 inches at middle hole, lever i inch thick, 
lo-inch cylinder used, and a maximum pressure of 60 
pounds obtained in the cylinder, giving a total power 
of about 4,700 pounds acting on the piston. 

6 PI ^ 6 X 4700 X 12 ^ ^ 

i? = -7 — T7 J< = , ^ or J< = 18,000 pounds. 

dd- 1x4.336x4.336 ^ 

Example : 

Under the same conditions as the preceding ex- 
ample find the proper width of the lever at the middle 
hole, permitting of a maximum fibre strain of 18,000 
pounds. 



r I 6 PI ^ I 6 X 4700 X 12 

^ = J ^x- or ^ == J — ^ or 

^ J^d > 18,000 X I 

d = 1 18.8 OT d = 4.336 inches. 

Width of lever should be 4.336 inches. 

To reduce stops at different speeds to an equivalent 
stop at the same speeds, all other conditions being equal. 



Formula and Rui.es. 299 

Rule : Multiply the knozun distance by the square 
of the speed for luhich proportionate distance is de- 
sired^ and divide the product by the square of the 
speed at which known stop zuas made. 

This rule is only practical with speeds which are not 
more . than three miles above or below the speed for 
w^hich proportionate stop is to be calculated. 

Example : 

If a stop at 58 miles per hour is made in 1,600 feet, 
and one at 62 miles per hour in 1,800 feet, in what dis- 
tance A,vould each of these stops have been made at a 
speed of 60 miles per hour ? 

Square of 58 miles = 3364. 
Square of 62 miles = 3844. 
Square of 60 miles = 3600. 



1600 X 3600 

3364 
1800 X 3600 

3844 



= 1712 



1691, 



In the first case the stop at 60 miles per hour would 
have been made in 1,712 feet, while in the latter it 
would have taken 1,691 feet. 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Am brake and hand brake 

working opposite . . .63 to 05 
Air brake and hand brake 

working together .... 63 to 65 
Air brake applied, revers- 
ing engine 261, 264, 265 

Air brake, definition 17 

Air expansion, to calculate, 

296, 297 
Air brake, invention . 17, 18, 35 
Air brake, plain automatic. 18, 19 
Air brake, plain automatic, 

car equipment 21 

Air brake, quick-action. ... 19 
Air brake recording gauges, 

229 to 233 

Connection 229 

Horizontal type 233 

Object sought 230 

Operation 229 

Revolving type 233 

Speed of 230 to 232 

Air brake, straight 17, 18 

Air brake, to g-pply 29 

Air brake, to release 31 

Air brake versus hand brakes 253 

Air gauge, incorrect 117 

Air hose and specifications, 

291 to 294 

Freight hose 291 

Passenger hose 291 

Signal hose 291 

Porous hose 292 

Use of marking 292 

Air pumps. See Pumps. 

Air valve lift, 8-inch 145 

Air valve lift, 9y2-inch 142 

American brake leverage, 

288 to 290 
American brake-slack adjus- 
ter 66 to 73 

Angle cock closed 246 

Appliances and methods of 

testing triple valves. 217 to 227 
Area of piston, to calculate. 296 
Automatic and straight-air 
brake. See Combined Au- 
tomatic and Straight-air. 
Auxiliary reservoir, charging. 27 
Auxiliary reservoir, how to 

charge 27, 31, 32 

Auxiliary reservoir leak. ... 45 
Auxiliary reservoir not 

charging 238 

Auxiliary reservoir, will not 
charge 40, 41 

Beginnings of the air brake, 

17 to 20 



PAGE 

Blow at exhaust of triple 

valve 241 

Blow at tram line exhaust. 249 

Blow out train line 235 

Broken graduating spring. 42, 43 

Brake application, meaning.. 256 

Brake, full set 30 

Brake leaking off 238 

Brake not applied 238 

Brake, not apply 40, 41 

Brake tests 261 to 267 

Brake valves, different kinds 90 

D 8, emergency position. 124 
D 8, high main reservoir 

pressure 128, 129 

D 8, how to remove ex- 
cess Dressure valve . . 127 

D 8, lap position 121 

D 8, no excess 127 

D 8, release position.119, 120 

D 8, running position. . . 120 
D 8, service position. 121-123 
D 8, too much or too 

little excess 128 

G 6, emergency j)osition, 

99, 100 

G 6, lap position. . . .96, 97 
G 6, no excess running 

position 114 to 116 

G 6, parts 91 

G 6, positions 91, 92 

G 6, preliminary exhaust 

port closed 117 

G 6, release position. 92 to 94 

G 6, running position.. 95 

G 6, service position. 97 to 99 

G6, troubles 114 to 119 

Location 90 

Leak at train line ex- 
haust 116, 117 

Test for leaking rotarv, 

^^'-. 116 
Comparisons of D 8 and 

G6 130, 131 

Brakes will not apply with 
brake valve in service posi- 
tion 117 

Brakes stuck 259 

Braking power and leverage, 

271 to 286 
Braking power as af- 
fected by load 273 

Braking power six-wheel 

trucks 271 

Braking power used on 

drivers 271, 272 

Braking power used on 

freight car 271 



Index. 



301 



PAGE 

Braking power and leverage : 
Braking- power used on 

passenger car 271 

Bralving power used on 

tenders 272 

Cylinder pressure used in 

iiguring bralving power 274 
Cylinder values, table. . 274 
Definition braking power 

and leverage 271 

Figuring braking power. 272 
How to design a brake 

gear . 271) to 283 

Lever of first kind or 

class 274, 275 

Lever of second kind or 

class 276 

Lever of third kind or 

class 277 

Proportion of levers . . 278 
To figure percentage of 
braking power ....... 271 

To figure braking power 

by a short method. 285, 286 
To find force acting on 

piston 272, 273 

Braking powder lost by 

heavy reduction 248, 249 

Braking power possible, us- 
ing retainer 252 

Brakes dragging 252 

Brakes stuck 251 

Cam brake 270 

Charge a train 235, 236 

Cleaning slack adjuster. .,. . 73 

Closed angle cock 246 

Combined Automatic and 

Straight air 201 to 213 

Advantages 202, 203 

Blow at exhaust 213 

Brake releasing 212 

Cause of brake releas- 
ing 213 

Cleaning brake valve... 213 
Directions for using.... 206 
Double check valve, op- 
eration 203, 204 

How to use 206 

Operation 205 

Parts employed 203 

Piping brake valve. 211, 212 

Reducing valve 203 

Safety valve, duties. . . . 205 
Slide-valve reducing 

valve 203 

Straight-air brake valve, 

operation 207 to 211 

Troubles, brake valve, 

212, 213 

Coupling to train 243, 244 

Cutting out car 239 

Cylinder lever 55 

Cylinder oil plug 52 

Cylinder release spring weak 240 

Cylinder volume, to calculate 296 



TAGE 

Cylinders to be used on dif- 
ferent vehicles 287 

D 8 BRAKE valve. See Brake 
valve. 

Dead lever 54 

Dirty triple piston 43, 44 

Dirtv triple valve strainers. 41 

Double heading 260, 261 

Driver brake, cutting out on 

grade 259 

Dry steam for pump 132 

Duplex main reservoir regula- 
tion 214 to 216 

Adjustment of governors 214 

Advantages 214 

Operation 214, 216 

Emergency after service ap- 
plication 37 

Emergencv application, cars 
cut out 41, 42 

Emergency application fol- 
lowed bj^ release 254, 255 

Emergency application on 
turntable 255 

Emergency application, quick- 
action triple valve. .37 to 39 

Emergency application, serv- 
ice reduction 240 

Emergency application, un- 
desired 43, 44 

Emergency, use of 261 

Engineer's brake valve. See 
Brake valve. 

Engineer's equalizing reser- 
voir or "little drum", 

110 to 113 

Equalizing piston, discharges 
air when releasing 126 

Equalizing piston, not sensi- 
tive 117 

Equalizing piston troubles, 
D8 brake valve 129 

Equalizing reservoir, loca- 
tion , 110 

Equalizing reservoir, i)ipe 
broken 112, 113 

Equalizing reservoir, use. . . . 110 

Excess pressure, its use. . . . 100 

Expansion of air, to cal- 
culate 296, 297 

Feed valve, removal 109 

Feed valve (old style) or 
train line governor. 105 to 109 

Defects 106, 107 

Operation 105 

Use 105 

Feed grooves dirty 242 

Fibre strain of levers. . .297, 298 

Floating lever 55 

Freight equipment, kinds. ... 53 
Freight equipment, parts and 

use 49 to 53 

Full service reduction 247 



20Z 



Index. 



PAGE 

Full service reduction in 
testing brakes 244 

G 6 Brake valve, gee Brake 
valves. 

Gauge, incorrect 117 

Gauge, necessity for watch- 
ing 253 

Gain in braking power 2U0 

Graduating spring broken or 

weak 42, 43 

Graduating valve, leak 48 

IlAXD brakes versus air 

brakes 253 

Hand brake used with 

air 258, 250 

High pressure control or 

Schedule U 197 to 200 

Advantages 197,198 

Object 197 

Wheel sliding possibility 197 
Effect of light service 

reductions 200 

Operation 198, 199 

Light cars in train. . . . 199 
Reduction to obtain full 

power 200 

Use of safety valves. . . . 200 

High-speed brake 185 to 196 

Eificiency 185 to 195 

Best method of using for 

stops 192 

Cleaning 195 

Comparison with quick- 
action 196 

Cylinder pressure, serv- 
^ice reduction ....190, 192 

Oiling 195 

Operation of reducing 

valve 185, 187, 194 

Percentage of braking 

power used 185 

Principles involved .... 186 
Quick service application 192 
Reducing valve opera- 
tion 186 

Special advantages .... 194 

Hodge lever 55 

Hose lining loose 245 

Hose, pulling apart 260 

Hose specifications. . .292 to 294 
Hose specifications. See Air 

hose specifications. 
Hose. See Air hose and 

Specifications. 
How to conduct train test. . 234 

IxiTTAL reduction, using re- 
tainers 252 

Initial reduction 246, 247 

Leak by graduating valve.. 48 

leak in auxiliary reservoir. 45 
Leak in emergency valve 

rubber seat 46, 47 



PAGE 

Leak in train line 45 

LeaKage test of train 

line 245, 246 

Leaks in train line. .237 to 239 

Leaks in triple valve 45 

Leaving train on grade 259 

Levers, cylinder 55 

Lever, dead 54 

Lever, floating 55 

Lever, Hodge 55 

Lever, live 54 

Lever, piston 54 

Levers, to calculate size of. 297 

Little drum, location 110 

Little drum, pipe broken. . . . 112 
Little drum, 20-pound reduc- 
tion 113 

Little drum pressure feeding 

up on lap 253 

Little drum, use 110 

Live lever 54 

Location of throttle and gov- 
ernor 133 

Loose packing rings 142 

Loss of braking power 248 

Lubricants 228 

Maix Reservoir 84 to 88 

Advantages if large. ... 86 

Bad effects if too small. 85 
Capacity recommended, 

84, 85, 88 

Draining 87 

Location 86, 87 

Object 84 

Pressure carried 84 

Tse of two 87 

Water in it 87 

Necessity for watching 

gauge 253 

Necessity for testing train. . 244 
Nine and one-half inch 

pump. See Pumps. 
Nine and one-half inch 

pump, right and left hand. 

See Pumps. 

Oil plug, cylinder 52 

Old style feed valve. See 

Feed valve (old style) or 

train line governor. 
Outside equalized brake, 

288 to 290 

Parts and use, freight equip- 
ment 49 to 53 

Passenger train, releasing 

brakes 256 

Passenger train stops. . .257, 258 

Pipina- 268 to 269 

Blowing out 268 

Effect on emergency ap- 
plication 269 

Elbows and short bends 268 

Securing 269 



Index. 



303 



PAGE 

Piping : 

Testing 2G1) 

To loosen scale -!t>8 

Sags 2G8 

Use of red lead or other 

compound 2GS 

Use of larger pipe on 

freight cars 260 

Piston area, to calculate. . . . 2DG 

Piston lever 55 

Piston travel 54 to Go 

Advantages and ai;5ad- 

vantages (long) . . .62, 63 
Advantages and disad- 
vantages (short) . .62, 63 
Car light or loaded .... 61 

Effects if uneven 58 

Effect on power. . .55 to 57 

Proper amount 61, 62 

Rimning 60 to 60 

Standing 60 to 60 

Table of pressures 56 

Taking up 62, 63 

Too long 60 

Too long, using slack 

adjuster 71, 72 

To tell how long without 

air 61 

To wear out brake shoes, 

205, 206 

Piston travel, proper amount 236 

Plain automatic air brake. 18, 10 
Plain automatic air brake, 

car equipmeni; 21 

Plain triple valve emergency 

application 33 

Plain triple valve, 011 era- 

tion 27 to 34 

Plain triple valve, parts. 22, 23 
Plain triple valve, service ap- 
plication 28 to 32 

Plain triple valve, use of, 

Plate II, 34 

Position of cock handles. . . . 235 

Pumps 132 to 153 

Cause of blows 138 

Cause of dancing 142 

Cause of heating 142 

Cause of pounding 138 

Cause of starting slow. . 156 

Cause of stopping. .. 141, 143 

Eight-inch 145 to 140 

Eight-inch, capacity . . . 133 
Eight-inch, lift of air 

valves 145 

Eight-inch, operation . . 

145 to 1-10 

Eight-inch, troubles 148 

Eleven-inch 151 to 153 

Eleven-inch, capacity... 151 

Eleven-inch, operation . . 151 

Eleven-inch, parts 151 

How to clean 143 

How to cool 142 

How to run 141 

Location 138 



PAGE 

Pumps : 

Nine and one-half inch 

132 to 144 

Nine and one-half inch, 

capacity 133 

Nine and one-half inch, 

lift of air valves. . . . 142 
Nine and one-half inch, 

operation 134 to 137 

Nine and one-half inch, 

packing 137 

Nine and one-half inch, 

valve motion ....133, 134 
Nine snd one-half inch, 

right and left. . . .140, 150 

Oiling air end 138 

Oiling steam end ..137, 138 

Starting 138 

Uneven strokes of.. 140, 141 

Pump governors 154 to 160 

Blow at relief port. . . . 157 
Description — improved 

type 154 

Drip pipe closed 156 

Operation — improved 

type 154 to 156 

Operation, old style, 

157 to 150 
Relief port closed in 

pump governor 15G 

Sensitiveness of pump 

governor 150 

QuiCK-ACTiox triple valve, 
advantages 35 

Quick-action triple, opera- 
tion 35 to 48 

Quick-action triple valve, 
emergency application. 37 to 30 

Quick-action triple valve, 
parts and use 36 to 38 

Rechargixg on grade 250 

Recording gauges. See Air 

brake recording gauges. 
Reduction, full service. .247, 248 

Reduction, initial 246,247 

Regulating valve stem too 

long 103 

Release, following emergency 

application 254 

Release of long travel l)rakes 250 
Releasing brakes, freight 

train 25(k 257 

Releasing brakes on passen- 
ger train 256 

Report of train test 237 

Retaining valve gone 230 

Retaining valves 74 to 83 

Retaining valves, advan- 
tages 251 , 252 

Defects 77, 78 

Different types, nnmes 

and uses 81 to 83 

Location 74 



304 



Index. 



PAGE 

Retaining valves : 

Operation 75, 76 

Special advantage. 78 to 80 
Table of pressures .... 80 

To test 77, 286, 237 

Uses 74, 77, 78 

Ketaining valves, use of . . . . 258 
Retaining valves, using a few 258 
Reversing engine with air 

brake applied 261 

Rules and formulae for air- 
brake inspectors ...295 to 299 
Runaway trains 257 

ScpiEDULE IT or high-pressure 
control. See High-pressure 

control 197 to 200 

Schedule U. See High-pres- 
sure control. 

Shoe movement 295 

Signal system 170 to 184 

Car discharge valve . . . 171 

Parts on car 171 

Parts on engine 170 

Reducing valve, duty. . . 172 
Reducing valve, loca- 
tion 171 

Reducing valve, opera- 
tion 172 

Reducing valve, opera- 
tion (old style) 174 

Signal strainer, engine. . 173 
Signal valve, location. . 171 

Strainer, engine 173 

Whistle 174, 175 

Signal valve operation. 175 to 177 
Blows when brake is re- 
leased 182 

Cause of whistle screech- 
ing 182 

Constant blow 184 

How to change pres- 
sure 184 

How to test pressure... 183 
Improper response. 181, 182 

Lack of air 179, 180 

Long blast 183 

^Method of using 178 

No response 180, 181 

Troubles 179, 184 

Slack adjuster, cleaning. ... 73 

How to apply 71, 72 

Operation 66, 67 

Parts and use 66 

Piston travel too long.71, 72 
Piston travel too short, 

71, 72 

Stuck 72, 73 

Slide valve feed valve. 101 to 104 

Defects 103, 104 

Duties 25, 26 

How to adjust 103 

Leak in supply valve. . . 45 

Operation 101, 103 

Parts 104 



PAGE 

Slide valve feed valve : 

Regulation 103 

Use 101 

Regulating valve too long 103 
Stops, freight train . . . .266, 267 

Stops, passenger trains 257 

Stops, to estimate length of. 299 

Stops, water rank 255, 256 

Straight-air and automatic 
combined. See Combined 
automatic and straight- 
air. 
Straight-air brake. See Com- 
bined automatic and 
straight-air brake. 
Straight-air brake valve. 

Straight-air brake 17, 18 

Stuck brakes 251, 259 

Stuck triple piston 43, 44 

Stuck air valves . . . .139 to 141 

The Sweeney compressor. . . 161 

Taking on cars, test 258 

Tests. See Brake tests. 

Testing a train 234, 242 

The water brake 162 to 169 

Thermal brake test 241, 242 

Time to charge a train. .235, 236 

Too little excess 128 

Total leverage 295 

Train handling 243 to 261 

Train inspection 234 to 242 

Train, leaving on grade .... 259 
Train line exhaust, blow. . . . 249 
Train line governor (old 
style). See Feed valve 
(old style) or train line 
governor. 
Train line leaks, 

45, 237 to 239, 252, 253, 260 
Train line pressure too 

high 106, 107 

Train line, usual pressure... 95 
Triple feed grooves dirty. . . . 242 
Triple piston dirty or stuck.43, 44 
Triple valve, dirty strainers. 41 
Triple valve, duties of gradu- 
ating valve 24, 25 

Triple valve, duties of piston 24 
Triple valve, feed ports.27, 31, 32 

Triple valve, leaks 45 

Triple valve, plain, opera- 
tion 27 to 34 

Triple valve, plain, parts. 22, 23 
Triple valve, slide valve, du- 
ties 25, 26 

Triple valve, slide valve leak 45 
Triple valve testing plants, 

217 to 227 

Cleaner's test 223 

Controlling valve opera- 
tion 217 to 219 

Repair test 227 

Shop repair test 225 

Yard test 219 to 223 



Index. 



305 



PAGE 

Triple valve, why so called.. 27 

Triple valve, quick-action, ad- 
vantages 35 

Triple valve, quick-action, 
emergency application. 37 to 39 

Triple valve, (piick-action, 
parts and use 3G to 38 

Turntable stops 255 

Use of brake valves 132 



PAGE 

Volume of cylinder, to cal- 
culate 21)G 

Water In brake system 42 

Water brake 103 to IGi) 

For compound en- 
gines 165 to 169 

For simple engines.163 to 165 

Water tank stops 255, 256 

Weak graduating spring. .42, 43 
Weak release spring 240 



Scientific and Practical Books 

PUBLISHED BY 

NORMAN \V. HI:NLE:Y &i CO. 

132 Nassau St., New York, U. S. A. 



Any of these books will be sent prepaid on receipt of 
price to any address in the world. 

^^'^Ve will send FREE to any address in the world our 100-page 
Catalogue of Scientilio and Practical Books. 



Askinson. Perfumes and Their Preparation. A Com- 
preliensive Treaiise ou Perfumery : 

Containing complete directions for making Handker- 
chief Perfumes, Smelling Salts, Sachets, Fumigating 
Pastils ; Preparations for the Care of the Skin, the 
Mouth, the Hair : Cosmetics, Hair Dyes, and other 
Toilet Articles. 300 I'ages. 32 illustrations. 8vo. 
Cloth $3.00 

Barr. Catechism on the Combustion of Coal and the 
Prevention ol Smoke : 

A practical treatise for all interested in fuel econ- 
omy and the suppression of smoke from stationary 
steam boiler furnaces and from locomotives. 85 illus- 
trations. 12mo. 349 Pages. Cloth $1.50 

Blackall, Alr-Brake Catechism : 

This book is a complete study of the air brake 
equipment, including the latest devices and inventions 
used. All parts of the air brake, their troubles and 
peculiarities, and a practical \^ay to find and remedy 
them, are explained. 1 his book contains 1500 question!? 
with their answers, and is completely illustiated by 1 ii- 
gravings and Twelve Large Folding Plates of the Westing- 
house Quick-Action Automatic Brake, and also the 9>^- 
inch Improved Air Pump. 805 Pages. Handsomely bound 

in Cloth. Eighteenth Edition S2.0U 

Grimsha^;ir. Saw Filing and Management of Saws: 
A practical handbook on filing, gtimming, swaging, 
hammering and the brazing of band saws, the speed, 
work and'power to run circular saws, etc., etc.. Fully 

illustrated. Cloth $1.00 

GrimshaTr, ^'Shop Kinks": 

This book is entirely different from any other on 
machine-shop practice. " It is not descriptive of univer- 
sal or common shop usage, but shows special ways of 
doing work better, more cheaply and more rapidly than 
usual, as done in fifty or more leading shops in Europe 



NORMAN W. HKNLEY & CO. 'S PUBLICATIONS. 



and America. Some of its over 500 items and 222 il- 
lustrations are contributed directlj^ for its pages by emi- 
nent constructors ; the rest have been gathered by the 
author in his Thirty Years' Travel and Experience. 
Second Edition. Nearly 400 Pages and 222 illustra- 
tions. Cloth $2.50 

Grimsliaw* Engine Runner's Catecliism: 

Telling how to erect, adjust and run the principal 
steam engines in the United States. Describing the 
principal features of various special and well-known 
makes of engines. Fourth Edition. 33G Pages. Fully 
illustrated. Cloth $2.00 

^rimslia^v. Steam Engine Cateeliisni: 

A series of direct practical answers to direct prac- 
tical questions, mainly intended for young engineers 
and for examination questions. Nearly 1,000 questions 
with their answers. Tweifth Edition. 413 Pages. 
Fully Illustrated. Cloth $2.00 

Grimsliaw. Locomolive Catecliism; 

This is a veritable pjncycloprodia of the Locomotive, 
is entirely free from mathematics, and tlioroughly 
up to date. It contains 1,600 Questions with their 
Answers. Twenty-second Edition, greatly enlarged. 
Nearly 450 Pages, over 200 illustrations, and 12 Large 
Folding Plates. Bound in Maroon Cloth $2.00 

IIiscox« Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines: 

Full of general information about the new and popu- 
lar motive power, its economy and ease of management. 
Also chapters on Horseless Vehicles, Electric Lighting, 
Marine Propulsion, etc. Special chapters on Theory 
of the Gas and Gasoline Engine, Utilization of Heat 
and Efficiency of Gas Engines, Retarded Combustion 
and Wall Cooling, Causes of Loss and Inefficiency in 
Explosive ^Motors, Economy of the Gas Engine for 
Electric Lighting, The Material of Power in Explosive 
Engines. Carbureters, Cylinder Capacity, Muffiers, 
Governors, Igniters and Exploders, Cylinder Lubrica- 
tors, The Measurement of Power, The Indicator and 
its Work, Heat Efficiencies, U. S. Patents on Gas, 
Gasoline and Oil Engines and their adjuncts since 
1875, etc. 412 Pages. Large Octavo, illustrated with 
312 Handsome Engravings. Tenth Edition, Revised 
and Enlarged. Buckram $2.50 

Htscox. Compressed Air in All its Applications: 

Giving the thermodynamics, compression, transmis- 
sion, expansion, and uses for power purposes in mining 
and enginepring work: pneumatic motors, shop-tools, 
air-blasts for cleaning and painting, air-lifts, pump- 
ing of water, acids and oils: aoration and purification 
of water supply, railway propulsion, pneumatic tube 
transmission, refrigeration and numerous appliances 



NORMAN W. HENIvEY & CO. 'S PUBLICATIONS. 



in which compressed air is a most convenient and eco- 
nomical vehicle for work — with tables of compression, 
expansion and the physical properties of air. Large 
octavo. 800 Pages. 600 illustrations. Fourth Edi- 
tion, Revised. Price $5.00 

Eliscox, Horseless Veliicles, Automobiles and Motor 
Cycles, Operated by Steam, Hydro-Carbon, £iectric 
and Pneumatic Motors: 

The make-up and management of Automobile Ve- 
hicles of all kinds are treated. It also contains a com- 
plete list of the Automobile and Motor Manufacturers 
with their addresses as well as a list of patents issued 
since 1856 on the Automobile industry. Nineteen Chap- 
ters. Large 8vo. 316 illustrations. 460 Pages. Oloth., $3.00 

Hiscox. Mechanical Movements^ Pollers, I>evices 
and Appliances: 

This is a new work on Illustrated Mechanics, Me- 
chanical Movements, Devices and Appliances, cover- 
ing nearly the whole range of the practical and inven- 
tive field, for the use of Mechanics, Inventors, Engi- 
neers, Draughtsmen, and all others interested in any 
way in mechanics. Large 8vo. Over 400 I'ages. l.SOO 
Specially Made Illustrations, with Descriptive Text. 
Tenth Edition $3.00 

Inventors' Manual; Hoxir to Make a Patent Pay: 

This is a book designed as a guide to inventors in per- 
fecting their inventions, taking out their patents and 
disposing of them. 119 Pages. New Edition. Cloth.. $1.00 

Kranss* Linear Perspective Self-Tauglit : 

The underlying principle by which objects may be 
correctly represented in perspective is clearly set forth 
in this book, everything relating to the subject is shown 
in suitable diagrams, accompanied by full explanations 
in the text. Price $2.50 

lie Van. Safety Valves; Tbeir History, Invention and 
Calculation : 

Illustrated by 69 Engravings. 151 Pages $1.50 

Parsell Sc We0d» Gas Engine Construction : 

A practical treatise describing the theory and prin- 
ciples of the action of gas engines of various types, 
and the design and construction of a half-horse power 
Gas engine, with illustrations of the work in actual 
progress, together with dimensioned working drawings, 
giving clearly the sizes of the various details. Second 
Edition Revised and Enlarged. 25 Chapters. Large 
8vo. Handsomely Illustrated and Bound. 300 Pages. $2.50 

Reagan^ Jr. Electrical En&:lneers^ and Students^ Chart 
and Handbook of tbe Brnsli Arc Li^rlit System : 

Illustrated. Bound in Cloth, with Celluloid Chart 
In Pocket. Svo. x:ioth $1-00 



NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO. 'S PUBLICATIONS. 



Sloane* Electricity Simplified : 

The object of "Electricity Simplified'* is to make the 
subject as plain as possible, and to show what the 
modern conception of electricity is. 158 Pages. Il- 
lustrated i^l.UO 

Sloane* BEoiir to Become a Successful Electriciau : 

It is the ambition of thousands of young and old to 
become electrical engineers. Not every one is pre- 
pared to spend several thousand dollars upon a col- 
lege course, even if the three or four years requisite are 
at their disposal. It is possible to become an electrical 
engineer without this sacrifice, and this work is de- 
signed to tell ''How to Become a Successful Electric- 
ian," without the outlay usually spent in acquiring the 
profession. Twelfth Edition. Revised and Enlarged. 
200 Pages. Illustrated. Cloth $1.00 

Sloane. A ritliiuetic of Electricity: 

A Practical Treatise on Electrical Calculations of 
all kinds, reduced to a series of rules, all of the sim- 
plest forms, and involving only ordinary arithmetic ; 
each rule illustrated by one or more practical prob- 
lems, with detailed solution of each one. Fourth Edi- 
tion. Illustrated. 138 Pages. Cloth $1.00 

Sloane. Electric Toy Maklns:, Dynamo Building and 
£lectric Motor Construction: 

This work treats of the making at home of Electrical 
To>s, Electrical Apparatus, Motors, Dynamos and In- 
struments in general, and is designed to bring within 
the reach of young and old the manufacture of genuine 
and useful electrical appliances. Third Edition. Fully 

Illustrated. 140 Pages. Cloth ?1.00 

Sloane* Rubber Hand Stamps and tlie Manipulation 
of India Rubber: 

A practical treatise on the manufacture of all kinds 
of Kubber articles. 146 Pages. Second Edition. Cloth. ^1.00 
Sloano* liiquid Air and tbe liiquefactlon of Gases : 

Containing the full theory of the subject, and giv- 
ing the entire history of liquefaction of gases, from the 
earliest times to the present. It shows how liquid air 
like water is carried hundreds of miles and is handled 
in open buckets. It tells what may be expected from 
it in the near future. 365 Pages, with many Illustra- 
tions. Handsomely bound in P>uckram. Second Edi- 
tion $2.50 

Sloane. Standard Electrfcvl Dictionary: 

A practical handbook of reference, containing defini- 
tions of about 5,000 distinct words, terms and phrases. 
An entirely New Edition, brought up to date and great- 
ly enlarged. Complete, Concise. Convenient. 682 
Pages, 393 Illustrations. Handsomely bound in Cloth. 
8vo $3.00 



NORMAN W. HE:NI.e:Y & CO. 'S PUBI.ICATIONS. 



Uglier. Tlie Modern Machinists 

A practical treatise embracing tlie most approved 
methods of modern macliine-sliop practice, and the ap- 
plications of recent improved appliances, tools and 
devices for facilitating, duplicating and expediting the 
construction of machines and their parts. A new hook 
from cover to cover. Third Edition. 257 Engravings. 
322 Pages. Cloth $2.50 

Van I>ervoort. Modern Machine Shop Tools; Tlieir 
Construction, Operation and Manipulation^ Includ- 
ing Both Hand and Machine Tools : 

A new work treating the subject in a concise an-d 
comprehensive manner. A chapter on Gearing and Belt- 
ing, covering the more important cases, also the Trans- 
mission of Power by Shafting with formulas and ex- 
amples is included. This book is strictly up-to-date 
and is the most complete, concise and useful work ever 
published on this subject. Containing 550 Pages and 
673 Illustrations $4.00 

vToodnrorth. Dies, Their Construction and Use for 
the Modern Working of Sheet Metals: 

A treatise upon the designing, constructing and use of 
tools, fixtures and devices, together with the man 
ner in which they should be used in the power 
press for the cheap and rapid production of sheet metal 
parts and articles. Comprising fundauaental designs 
and practical points by which sheet metal parts may 
be produced at the minimum of cost to the maximum of 
output, together with special reference to the harden- 
ing and tempering of press tools, and to the classes 
of work which may be produced to the best advantage 
t»y the use of dies in the power press. Containing 
400 Pages. 500 Illustrations $3.00 

"Woodworth. Hardening, Tempering, Annealing and 
Forging of Steel s 

A new book containing special directions for the suc- 
cessful hardening and tempering of all steel tools. 
Milling cutters, taps, thread dies, reamers, both solid 
and shell, hollow mills, punches and dies and all 
kinds of sheet-metal working tools, shear blades, saws, 
fine cutlerv.^and metal-cutting tools of all descriptions, 
as well as ^for all implements of steel, both large and 
small, the simplest and most satisfactory hardening 
and tempering processes are presented. The uses to 
which the leading brands of steel may be adapted 
are concisely presented, and their treatment for work- 
ing under different conditions explained, as are also 
the special methods for the hardening and tempering 
of special brands. Containing 288 Pages, about 201 
Illustrations ' \ $2.50 



JUST PUBLISHED, 







LOCOMOTIVE 
BREAKDOWNS and 
THEIR REMEDIES. 



AN UP TO DATE CATECHISM ON RAILWAY BREAK- 
DOWNS, OR WHAT TO DO IN CASE OF 
ACCIDENTS. 
BY GEO. L. FOWLER, M. E. 

l2mo. 250 Pages. Fully Illustrated. 

PRICE, $1.50. 

THIS work treats in full all kinds of accidents that are 
likely to happen to locomotive engines while on the road. 
The various parts of the locomotive are discussed and 
every accident that can possibly happen with the remedy to be 
applied is given. 

The various types of Compound Locomotives are included 
so that every engineer may post himself in regard to emergency 
work in connection with this class of engine. 

For the Railroad man who is anxious to know what to do 
and how to do it under all the various circumstances that may 
arise in the performance of his duties, this book will be an in- 
valuable assistant and guide. 

EVERY RAILROAD MAN SHOULD HAVE THIS BOOK, 

SO THAT HE WILL KNOW HOW AND WHAT 

TO DO WHEN THE TIME COMES. 

Special Chapters on Defective Valves; Accidents to the 
Valve Motion; Accidents to Cylinders, Steam Chests, Cylinders 
and Pistons; Accidents to Guides, Crossheads and Rods; Acci- 
dents to Running Gears; Truck and Frame Accidents; Boiler 
Troubles; Defective Throttle and Steam Connections; Defect- 
ive Draft Appliances; Pumpand Injector Troubles; Accidents 
to Cab Fixtures; Tender Accidents; Miscellaneous Accidents; 
Compound Locomotive Accidents; Tools and Appliances for 
Making Engine Repairs; Air Brake Troubles; Aid to the 
Injured. . 

NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO., 

PUBLISHERS, 
132 NASSAU STREET, NEW YORK; 




JUST PUBLISHED. 
22d Edition. Greatly Enlarged. 

Locomotive Catechism 



OR 

How to Run a Locomotive. 
BY ROBERT GRIMSHAW. 
PRICE, $2.00 

THIS book commends itself at once to every Engineer and 
Fireman, and to all who are going in for examination, 
or promotion. 
In plain language, with full, complete answers, not only all 
the questions asked by the examining engineer are given, but 
those which the young and less experienced would ask the 
veteran, and which old hands ask as ''stickers.'* 

It is is a veritable Encyclopaedia of the Locomotive, is 
entirely free from mathematics, and thoroughly up to date. 
It contains Sixteen Hundred Questions with their Answers. 

PARTIAL TABLE OF C0NTENT5. 

Definitions and Classifications ; The Boiler ; The Engine ; 
The Frame Running Gear ; Continuous Train Brakes ; Com- 
pound Engine ; Accidents and Emergencies ; Boiler Flues ; 
Boiler Attachments ; Dry Pipe and Throttle ; Steam Pipe ; 
Steam Chest ; Slide Valve ; Cylinder ; The Rods ; The Piston ; 
The Exhaust and its Signs ; Cross-head Crank Pins ; Filing, 
Fitting and Lining Brasses ; Compound Engines. — Containing 
Official Form of Examination of Firemen for Promotion and 
of Engineers for Employment. (143 questions answered in 
detail.) Many of the answers illustrated by engravings especially 
prepared therefor.— Nearly 450 Pages, over ^00 Illustrations, 
and 12 Large Folding Plates.— Bound in Cloth, Price $2.00. 



NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO., 

publishers, 
132 Nassau street. new York. 



SEP 25 1903 



